Fact of the Day

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - WEAVER BIRDS

 

Did you know... that weaver birds are the only birds recorded with the ability to tie knots? Sociable weaver nests are the largest structures built by birds. Some flocks of red-billed quelea are so massive they can take 5 hours to pass.

 

Weaver birds are a group of several families of small passerine birds that are related to the finches. Most weaver birds are yellow, but there are also red, brown or black varieties. They are commonly known for their construction of elaborate nests.

 

A group of weaver bird nests

 

Their blunt, conical bills allow them to easily feast on seeds and grain, with some weaver birds, such as the red-billed quelea featured below, proving a massive problem for crop farmers.

 

The Ploceidae weaver finches are the most common, with 64 individual species. Most weaver finches can be found in Sub-Saharan Africa, with five Asian and two Madagascan species.

 

 

The Nests

Weaver bird nests are extraordinary structures.

 

Most individual nests are cylindrical in shape, with downward-facing, narrow entrances that are usually situated over or next to water.

 

 

Ensuring that the entrance faces downwards and is as narrow as possible deters thieves and potential predators. Some nests even have a long tube, extending the entrance further beneath the nest body.

 

Having selected a good location for his nest, the weaver bird starts to loop and weave strands of grass or strips of leaves around the ends of one or two branches in a tree. Having created a looped basis for the nest body, the weaver bird then builds the hollow body before adding the tubular entrance last.

 

 

The males are the main weavers, leaving the females with the responsibility of selecting their breeding-partner. They do this based on the location, design and relative comfort of the nest which ensures the good genetic quality for the father of her offspring alongside a safe home for her eggs.

 

 

Sociable Weaver

Sociable weaver bird nest in Namibia, Africa

The sociable weaver of southern Africa builds large, permanent nests for a community of birds, usually found around areas where the stiff, dry grass they use as a building material can be found. Some of these nests are the largest structures built by birds.

 

Usually found spread throughout the branches of certain trees, sociable weavers have also been known to take advantage of telegraph poles and other tall, man-made structures. The nests resemble a pile of hay in the tree with entrance holes placed underneath in order to deter nest invaders.

 

 

The nests provide a more consistent environment for sociable weavers who inhabit an area whose climate can see a fluctuation of extremes. Protected from the intense heat of the day and sometimes brisk night-time temperatures, sociable weavers can raise their young and ride out extreme weather in relative comfort, all the time safe in the knowledge that they are surrounded by members of their own species. However, despite this "safety in numbers" it has been found that nest raiding can be quite high with up to 80% of young not making it to adulthood.

 

Red-Billed Quelea

The red-billed quelea is the world's most abundant wild bird, with some estimates numbering them in the billions. Perhaps even as high as 10 billion!

 

Found throughout sub-Saharan Africa, except the forests and the southern tip, they can congregate in vast swarms that can clear swathes of crops, proving to be a massively destructive pest. Some extreme methods of control include the burning of roosting colonies with napalm.

 

Quick Facts

• Male weavers tend to be the nest builders.
• Weaver birds are the only birds recorded with the ability to tie knots.
• Sociable weaver nests are the largest structures built by birds.
• Some flocks of red-billed quelea are so massive they can take 5 hours to pass.

Source: Life on Earth: Eden

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - KLEENEX TISSUES

Did you know... that facial tissue, paper handkerchief, and Kleenex refers to a class of soft, absorbent, disposable papers that are suitable for use on the face? They are disposable alternatives for cloth handkerchiefs. (Wikipedia)

 

In 1924, the Kleenex brand of facial tissue was first introduced. Kleenex tissue was invented as a means to remove cold cream. Early advertisements linked Kleenex to Hollywood makeup departments and sometimes included endorsements from movie stars (Helen Hayes and Jean Harlow) who used Kleenex to remove their theatrical makeup with cold cream.

Kleenex and Noses
By 1926, Kimberly-Clark Corporation, the manufacturer of Kleenex, became intrigued by the number of letters from customers stating that they used their product as a disposable handkerchief.

A test was conducted in the Peoria, Illinois, newspaper. Ads were run depicting the two main uses of Kleenex, either as a means to remove cold cream or as a disposable handkerchief for blowing noses. The readers were asked to respond. Results showed that 60% used Kleenex tissue for blowing their noses. By 1930, Kimberly-Clark had changed the way they advertised Kleenex and sales doubled, proving that the customer is always right.

 

 

Highlights of Kleenex History
In 1928, the familiar pop-up tissue cartons with a perforated opening were introduced. In 1929, colored Kleenex tissue was introduced and a year later printed tissues. In 1932, pocket packs of Kleenex were introduced. That same year, the Kleenex company came up with the phrase, "The handkerchief you can throw away!" to use in their advertisements.

 

During World War II, rations were placed on the production of paper products and the manufacturing of Kleenex tissues was limited. However, the technology used in the tissues was applied to the field bandages and dressings used during the war effort, giving the company a big boost in publicity. Supplies of paper products returned to normal in 1945 after the war ended.

 

In 1941, Kleenex Mansize tissues were launched, as indicated by the name, this product was aimed at the male consumer. In 1949, a tissue for eyeglasses was released.

 

 

During the '50s, the spread of the popularity of the tissues continued to grow. In 1954, the tissue was the official sponsor on the popular television show, "The Perry Como Hour."

During the '60s, the company began successfully advertising the tissue during daytime programming rather than just nighttime television. SPACESAVER tissue packs were introduced, as well as purse packs and juniors. In 1967, the new square upright tissue box (BOUTIQUE) was introduced.

 

 

In 1981, the first scented tissue was introduced to the market (SOFTIQUE). In 1986, Kleenex started the "Bless You" advertising campaign. In 1998, the company first used a six-color printing process, allowing for complex prints on their tissues.

 

 

By the 2000s, Kleenex sold tissues in over 150 different countries. Kleenex with lotion, Ultra-Soft, and Anti-Viral products were all introduced. 

 

Where Did the Word Come From?

In 1924, when Kleenex tissues were first introduced to the public, they were intended to be used with cold cream to remove makeup and "clean" the face. The Kleen in Kleenex represented that "clean." The ex at the end of the word was tied to the company's other popular and successful product at the time, Kotex brand feminine napkins.

 

Generic Use of the Word Kleenex

The word Kleenex is now commonly used to describe any soft facial tissue. However, Kleenex is the trademarked name of the soft facial tissue manufactured and sold by the Kimberly-Clark Corporation.

 

How Kleenex Is Made

According to the Kimberly-Clark company, Kleenex tissue is made in the following way:

At the tissue manufacturing mills, bales of wood pulp are put into a machine called the hydrapulper, which resembles a giant electric mixer. The pulp and water is mixed to form a slurry of individual fibers in water called the stock.
 

As the stock moves to the machine, more water is added to make a thinner mixture which is more than 99 percent water. The cellulose fibers are then thoroughly separated in refiners before being formed into a sheet, on the forming section of the creped wadding machine. When the sheet comes off the machine a few seconds later, it is 95 percent fiber and only 5 percent water. Much of the water used in the process is recycled after being treated to remove contaminants prior to discharge.
 

A felt belt carries the sheet from the forming section to the drying section. In the drying section, the sheet is pressed onto the steam-heated drying cylinder and then scraped off the cylinder after it has been dried. The sheet is then wound into large rolls.
 

The large rolls are transferred to a rewinder, where two sheets of wadding (three sheets for Kleenex Ultra Soft and Lotion Facial Tissue products) are plied together before being further processed by calender rollers for additional softness and smoothness. After being cut and rewound, the finished rolls are tested and transferred to storage, ready for converting into Kleenex facial tissue.
 

In the converting department, numerous rolls are put on the multifolder, where in one continuous process, the tissue is interfolded, cut and put into Kleenex brand tissue cartons which are inserted into shipping containers. The interfolding causes a fresh tissue to pop out of the box as each tissue is removed.

 

 

 

Source: The History of Kleenex Tissue

 

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - NEPTUNE

 

 

Did you know... that Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet from the Sun in the Solar System? In the Solar System, it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter, the third-most-massive planet, and the densest giant planet. Neptune is 17 times the mass of Earth, slightly more massive than its near-twin Uranus. (Wikipedia)

 

SIZE OF NEPTUNE COMPARED WITH THE EARTH

Side by side comparison of the size of Neptune vs Earth

 

FACTS ABOUT NEPTUNE

• It takes Neptune 164.8 Earth years to orbit the Sun. On 11 July 2011, Neptune completed its first full orbit since its discovery in 1846.
• Neptune was discovered by Jean Joseph Le Verrier. The planet was not known to ancient civilizations because it is not visible to the naked eye. The planet was initially called Le Verrier after its discoverer. This name, however, quickly was abandoned and the name Neptune was chosen instead.
• Neptune is the Roman God of the Sea. In Greek, Neptune is called Poseidon.
• Neptune has the second largest gravity of any planet in the solar system – second only to Jupiter.
• The orbit path of Neptune is approximately 30 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun. This means it is around 30 times the distance from the Earth to the Sun.
• The largest Neptunian moon, Triton, was discovered just 17 days after Neptune itself was discovered.
• Neptune has a storm similar the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. It is commonly known as the Great Dark Spot and is roughly the size of Earth.
• Neptune also has a second storm called the Small Dark Spot. This storm is around the same size as Earth’s moon.
• Neptune spins very quickly on its axis. The planet's equatorial clouds take 18 hours to complete one rotation. The reason this happens is that Neptune does not have a solid body.
• Only one spacecraft, the Voyager 2, has flown past Neptune. It happened in 1989 and captured the first close-up images of the Neptunian system. It took 246 minutes – four hours and six minutes – for signals from Voyager 2 to reach back to Earth.
• 
• The climate on Neptune is extremely active. In its upper atmosphere, large storms sweep across it and high-speed solar winds track around the planet at up to 1,340 km per second. The largest storm was the Great Dark Spot in 1989 which lasted for around five years.
• Like the other outer planets, Neptune possesses a ring system, though its rings are very faint. They are most likely made up of ice particles and grains of dust with a carbon-based substance coating them.
• Neptune has 14 known moons. The largest of these moons is Titan – a frozen world which spits out particles of nitrogen ice and dust from below its surface. It is believed that Titan was caught by the immense gravitational pull of Neptune and is regarded as one of the coldest worlds in our solar system. (Note: Titan is the largest moon of Saturn)
• Neptune has an average surface temperature of -214°C – approximately -353°F.

 

When scientific discoveries are made there is often a debate (sometimes heated) as to who deserves credit. The discovery of Neptune is one such example. Shortly after the discovery of the planet Uranus in 1781, scientists noticed that its orbit had significant fluctuations that were not expected. To solve this mystery, they proposed the existence of another planet whose gravitational field would account for such orbital variances.

 

In 1845, the English astronomer John Couch Adams completed his calculations as to the position of this unknown planet. Although he submitted his findings to the Royal Society (the leading English scientific organization), his work was met with little interest. However, a year later the French astronomer Jean Joseph Le Verrier made known his calculations that were strikingly similar to those of Adams. As a result of the two men’s independent estimates being so close, the scientific community took notice and began its search for the planet in the region of the sky Adams and Le Verrier had predicted. On September 23, 1846, the German astronomer Johann Galle observed the new planet near to where Adam’s calculations had forecasted and even closer to those of Le Verrier.

 

John Couch Adams

 

Le Verrier was initially given credit for the discovery. As a result, an international dispute arose, with one faction championing Adams and the other Le Verrier. This conflict, however, was not shared between the two men themselves. Eventually, the campaign for each side cooled, and both men were given credit.

 

Until the Voyager 2 spacecraft fly-by in 1989, little was known about Neptune. This mission provided new information about Neptune’s rings, number of moons, atmosphere and rotation. Additionally, Voyager 2 discovered significant features of the moon Triton. There are no official planetary missions scheduled to Neptune in the near future.

 

ATMOSPHERE
Neptune’s upper atmosphere is composed of 80% hydrogen (H2), 19% helium and trace amounts of methane. Similar to Uranus, the blue coloration of Neptune is due in part to its atmospheric methane, which absorbs light having a wavelength corresponding to red. Unlike Uranus, Neptune is a deeper blue, and, therefore, some other atmospheric component must be present in the Neptunian atmosphere that is not found in Uranus’ atmosphere.

 

Two significant weather patterns have been observed on Neptune. The first, seen during the Voyager 2 fly-by mission, are the Dark Spots. These are storms comparable to the Great Red Spot found on Jupiter. However, a difference between these storms is their duration. Whereas the Great Red Spot has lasted for centuries, the Dark Spots are much more shortly lived as is evident by their disappearance when Neptune was viewed by the Hubble Space Telescope just four years after the Voyager 2 fly-by.

 

Hubble Space Telescope

 

The second of the two weather patterns observed by Voyager 2 is the swiftly moving white storm system, nicknamed Scooter. This type of storm system, which is much smaller than the Dark Spots, also appears to be short-lived.

 

As with the other gas giants, Neptune’s atmosphere is divided into latitudinal bands. The wind speed achieved in some of these bands is almost 600 m/s, the fastest known in the Solar System.

 

INTERIOR
The interior of Neptune, similar to that of Uranus, is made of two layers: a core and mantle. The core is rocky and estimated to be 1.2 times as massive as the Earth. The mantle is an extremely hot and dense liquid composed of water, ammonia and methane. The mantle is between ten to fifteen times the mass of the Earth.

 

Interior of Neptune

 

Although Neptune and Uranus share similar interiors, they are, however, quite distinct in one way. Whereas Uranus emits only about the same amount of heat that it receives from the Sun, Neptune emits nearly 2.61 times the amount of the sunlight it receives. To place this in perspective, the two planets’ surface temperatures are approximately equal, yet Neptune receives only 40% of the sunlight that Uranus does. Additionally, this large internal heat is also what powers the extreme winds found in the upper atmosphere.

 

ORBIT & ROTATION
With the discovery of Neptune, the size of the known Solar System increased by a factor of two. With an average orbital distance of 4.50 x 109 km, it takes sunlight almost four hours and forty minutes to reach Neptune. Moreover, this distance also means that a Neptunian year lasts about 165 Earth years!

 

Neptune’s orbital eccentricity of .0097 is second smallest behind that of Venus. This small eccentricity means that the orbit of Neptune is very close to being circular. Another way of looking at this is to compare Neptune’s perihelion of 4.46 x 109 km and its aphelion of 4.54 x 109 km and notice that this is a difference of less than two percent.

 

Like Jupiter and Saturn, Neptune rotates very quickly as compared to the terrestrial planets. With a rotational period of a little over 16 hours, Neptune has the third shortest day in the Solar System.

 

The axial tilt of Neptune is 28.3°, which is relatively close to the Earth’s 23.5°. What is amazing is that, even at such a far distance from the Sun, Neptune still experiences seasons (though more subtly) similar to those on Earth as a result of its axial tilt.

 

RINGS
Currently, Neptune is known to have thirteen moons. Of these thirteen only one is large and spherical in shape. This moon, Triton, is believed to have originally been a dwarf planet captured by Neptune’s gravitational field, and, thus, not a natural satellite of the planet. Evidence for this theory comes from Triton’s retrograde orbit of Neptune; that is, Triton orbits in the opposite direction that Neptune rotates. With a recorded surface temperature of -235° C, Triton is the coldest known object in the Solar System.

 

Retrograde orbit: the satellite

(red) orbits in the direction

opposite to the rotation of its

primary (blue/black)

 

Neptune has three major rings – Adams, Le Verrier and Galle. This ring system is much fainter than that of the other gas giants. In fact, some of the rings are so dim that it was believed at one time that they were incomplete. However, images from the Voyager 2 fly-bys show extremely faint rings.

 

Source: The Planets

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - SOPHOCLES

Sophocles

 

Did you know... that Sophocles is one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived? His first plays were written later than or contemporary with those of Aeschylus, and earlier than or contemporary with those of Euripides. (Wikipedia)

 

Sophocles wrote over 120 plays during the course of his life, but only seven have survived in a complete form: Ajax, Antigone, Women of Trachis, Oedipus Rex, Electra, Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus. For almost 50 years, Sophocles was the most celebrated playwright in the dramatic competitions of the city-state of Athens that took place during the religious festivals of the Lenaea and the Dionysia. He competed in 30 competitions, won 24, and was never judged lower than second place. Aeschylus won 13 competitions, and was sometimes defeated by Sophocles, while Euripides won four competitions.

 

The most famous tragedies of Sophocles feature Oedipus and also Antigone: they are generally known as the Theban plays, although each play was actually a part of a different tetralogy, the other members of which are now lost. Sophocles influenced the development of drama, most importantly by adding a third actor, thereby reducing the importance of the chorus in the presentation of the plot. He also developed his characters to a greater extent than earlier playwrights such as Aeschylus. (Wikipedia)

 

Sophocles was the younger contemporary of Aeschylus and the older contemporary of Euripides. He was born at Colonus, a village outside the walls of Athens, where his father, Sophillus, was a wealthy manufacturer of armour. Sophocles himself received a good education. Because of his beauty of physique, his athletic prowess, and his skill in music, he was chosen in 480, when he was 16, to lead the paean (choral chant to a god) celebrating the decisive Greek sea victory over the Persians at the Battle of Salamis. The relatively meagre information about Sophocles’ civic life suggests that he was a popular favourite who participated actively in his community and exercised outstanding artistic talents. In 442 he served as one of the treasurers responsible for receiving and managing tribute money from Athens’ subject-allies in the Delian League. In 440 he was elected one of the 10 stratēgoi (high executive officials who commanded the armed forces) as a junior colleague of Pericles. Sophocles later served as stratēgos perhaps twice again. In 413, then aged about 83, Sophocles was a proboulos, one of 10 advisory commissioners who were granted special powers and were entrusted with organizing Athens’ financial and domestic recovery after its terrible defeat at Syracuse in Sicily. Sophocles’ last recorded act was to lead a chorus in public mourning for his deceased rival, Euripides, before the festival of 406. He died that same year.

 

These few facts are about all that is known of Sophocles’ life. They imply steady and distinguished attachment to Athens, its government, religion, and social forms. Sophocles was wealthy from birth, highly educated, noted for his grace and charm, on easy terms with the leading families, a personal friend of prominent statesmen, and in many ways fortunate to have died before the final surrender of Athens to Sparta in 404. In one of his last plays, Oedipus at Colonus, he still affectionately praises both his own birthplace and the great city itself.

 

Oedipus at Colonus

 

Sophocles won his first victory at the Dionysian dramatic festival in 468, however, defeating the great Aeschylus in the process. This began a career of unparalleled success and longevity. In total, Sophocles wrote 123 dramas for the festivals. Since each author who was chosen to enter the competition usually presented four plays, this means he must have competed about 30 times. Sophocles won perhaps as many as 24 victories, compared to 13 for Aeschylus and four for Euripides, and indeed he may have never received lower than second place in the competitions he entered.

 

Dramatic And Literary Achievements
Ancient authorities credit Sophocles with several major and minor dramatic innovations. Among the latter is his invention of some type of “scene paintings” or other pictorial prop to establish locale or atmosphere. He also may have increased the size of the chorus from 12 to 15 members. Sophocles’ major innovation was his introduction of a third actor into the dramatic performance. It had previously been permissible for two actors to “double” (i.e., assume other roles during a play), but the addition of a third actor onstage enabled the dramatist both to increase the number of his characters and widen the variety of their interactions. The scope of the dramatic conflict was thereby extended, plots could be more fluid, and situations could be more complex.

 

The typical Sophoclean drama presents a few characters, impressive in their determination and power and possessing a few strongly drawn qualities or faults that combine with a particular set of circumstances to lead them inevitably to a tragic fate. Sophocles develops his characters’ rush to tragedy with great economy, concentration, and dramatic effectiveness, creating a coherent, suspenseful situation whose sustained and inexorable onrush came to epitomize the tragic form to the classical world. Sophocles emphasizes that most people lack wisdom, and he presents truth in collision with ignorance, delusion, and folly. Many scenes dramatize flaws or failure in thinking (deceptive reports and rumours, false optimism, hasty judgment, madness). The chief character does something involving grave error; this affects others, each of whom reacts in his own way, thereby causing the chief agent to take another step toward ruin—his own and that of others as well. Equally important, those who are to suffer from the tragic error usually are present at the time or belong to the same generation. It was this more complex type of tragedy that demanded a third actor. Sophocles thus abandoned the spacious Aeschylean framework of the connected trilogy and instead comprised the entire action in a single play. From his time onward, “trilogy” usually meant no more than three separate tragedies written by the same author and presented at the same festival.

 

Sophocles’ language responds flexibly to the dramatic needs of the moment; it can be ponderously weighty or swift-moving, emotionally intense or easygoing, highly decorative or perfectly plain and simple. His mastery of form and diction was highly respected by his contemporaries. Sophocles has also been universally admired for the sympathy and vividness with which he delineates his characters; especially notable are his tragic women, such as Electra and Antigone. Few dramatists have been able to handle situation and plot with more power and certainty; the frequent references in the Poetics to Sophocles’ Oedipus the King show that Aristotle regarded this play as a masterpiece of construction, and few later critics have dissented. Sophocles is also unsurpassed in his moments of high dramatic tension and in his revealing use of tragic irony.

 

Antigone; Oedipus the King; Electra

 

The criticism has been made that Sophocles was a superb artist and nothing more; he grappled neither with religious problems as Aeschylus had nor with intellectual ones as Euripides had done. He accepted the gods of Greek religion in a spirit of unreflecting orthodoxy, and he contented himself with presenting human characters and human conflicts. But it should be stressed that to Sophocles “the gods” appear to have represented the natural forces of the universe to which human beings are unwittingly or unwillingly subject. To Sophocles, human beings live for the most part in dark ignorance because they are cut off from these permanent, unchanging forces and structures of reality. Yet it is pain, suffering, and the endurance of tragic crisis that can bring people into valid contact with the universal order of things. In the process, a person can become more genuinely human, more genuinely himself.

 

The Plays
Only seven of Sophocles’ tragedies survive in their entirety, along with 400 lines of a satyr play, numerous fragments of plays now lost, and 90 titles. All seven of the complete plays are works of Sophocles’ maturity, but only two of them, Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus, have fairly certain dates. Ajax is generally regarded as the earliest of the extant plays. Some evidence suggests that Antigone was first performed in 442 or 441 BC. Philoctetes was first performed in 409, when Sophocles was 90 years old, and Oedipus at Colonus was said to have been produced after Sophocles’ death by his grandson.

 

Ajax
The entire plot of Ajax (Greek Aias mastigophoros) is constructed around Ajax, the mighty hero of the Trojan War whose pride drives him to treachery and finally to his own ruin and suicide some two-thirds of the way through the play. Ajax is deeply offended at the award of the prize of valour (the dead Achilles’ armour) not to himself but to Odysseus. Ajax thereupon attempts to assassinate Odysseus and the contest’s judges, the Greek commanders Agamemnon and Menelaus, but is frustrated by the intervention of the goddess Athena. He cannot bear his humiliation and throws himself on his own sword. Agamemnon and Menelaus order that Ajax’ corpse be left unburied as punishment. But the wise Odysseus persuades the commanders to relent and grant Ajax an honourable burial. In the end Odysseus is the only person who seems truly aware of the changeability of human fortune.

 

Amphora with Ajax and Achilles playing a board game,

painted by Exekias, c. 550–540 BC; in the Vatican Museum.

 

Antigone
Antigone is the daughter of Oedipus, the former king of Thebes. She is willing to face the capital punishment that has been decreed by her uncle Creon, the new king, as the penalty for anyone burying her brother Polyneices. (Polyneices has just been killed attacking Thebes, and it is as posthumous punishment for this attack that Creon has forbidden the burial of his corpse.) Obeying all her instincts of love, loyalty, and humanity, Antigone defies Creon and dutifully buries her brother’s corpse. Creon, from conviction that reasons of state outweigh family ties, refuses to commute Antigone’s death sentence. By the time Creon is finally persuaded by the prophet Tiresias to relent and free Antigone, she has killed herself in her prison cell. Creon’s son, Haemon, kills himself out of love and sympathy for the dead Antigone, and Creon’s wife, Eurydice, then kills herself out of grief over these tragic events. At the play’s end Creon is left desolate and broken in spirit. In his narrow and unduly rigid adherence to his civic duties, Creon has defied the gods through his denial of humanity’s common obligations toward the dead. The play thus concerns the conflicting obligations of civic versus personal loyalties and religious mores.

 

Antigone

 

Want to learn more about Sophocles?  Click below. 

Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica

 

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - ELEANOR ROOSEVELT

Did you know... that Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was an American political figure, diplomat and activist? She served as the First Lady of the United States from March 4, 1933, to April 12, 1945, during her husband President Franklin D. Roosevelt's four terms in office, making her the longest-serving First Lady of the United States. (Wikipedia)

 

On October 11, 1884, Eleanor Roosevelt was born in New York City. Her lifetime achievements are almost too numerous to list, but these amazing facts should remind you why she’s still celebrated as one of America’s finest first ladies and diplomats.

 

ELEANOR WAS HER MIDDLE NAME.
From a very young age, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt much preferred her middle name and would usually introduce herself by it as she grew older. For the record, Roosevelt wasn’t wild about her childhood nickname either: Her mother, Anna Hall Roosevelt, found the girl comically old-fashioned and often referred to her as "Granny."

 

SHE WAS ORPHANED AT A VERY YOUNG AGE.

 

When Anna Roosevelt passed away in 1892, her husband Elliott, who struggled with alcoholism, was exiled from the family. Following these tragic events, 8-year-old Eleanor was left in the care of her maternal grandmother, Valentine Hall. Unable to shake his demons, Elliott (Teddy Roosevelt’s younger brother) attempted suicide by jumping out of a window in 1894. Despite surviving this fall, he suffered a seizure shortly thereafter and died on August 14, 1894—leaving his children parentless.

 

SHE LOVED FIELD HOCKEY.
What did Roosevelt consider the happiest day of her life? The day she made her private school’s field hockey team.

 

ON HER WEDDING DAY, THEN-PRESIDENT TEDDY ROOSEVELT WALKED HER DOWN THE AISLE.

Eleanor Roosevelt in wedding dress

 

“I am as fond of Eleanor as if she were my daughter,” Teddy Roosevelt once wrote of his niece. On March 17, 1905—just a few months into his second term—the Bull Moose had the honor of giving Eleanor away on her wedding day. “Well, Franklin,” the commander-in-chief later joked to her new spouse, and his cousin, “there’s nothing like keeping the name in the family.”  

 

SHE ORGANIZED SEVERAL WOMEN-ONLY WHITE HOUSE PRESS CONFERENCES.
At the time FDR was first elected president, female journalists had traditionally been excluded from serious media events at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue. Eleanor helped to somewhat level the playing field by hosting a series of ladies-only press conferences, which pressured papers into hiring more women reporters and helped Eleanor win over female voters on behalf of her husband. 

 

SHE ONCE WENT FLYING WITH AMELIA EARHART.
The courageous aviator inspired Eleanor to apply for her very own piloting license and even took the First Lady out for an airborne spin from D.C. to Baltimore in 1933. Years later, after Earhart unexpectedly vanished, a grief-stricken Roosevelt told the press “I am sure Amelia’s last words were ‘I have no regrets.’”

 

SHE WROTE A SYNDICATED NEWSPAPER COLUMN FOR 27 YEARS.

 

From 1935 to 1962, Eleanor composed six weekly articles about her political views and personal life. Simply entitled “My Day,” the column featured Roosevelt’s musings on such topics as Prohibition, Pearl Harbor, and Joseph McCarthy’s Communist witch hunt. A disciplined professional, Eleanor missed only a single week’s worth of material, following her husband’s untimely death in 1945.   

 

SHE DEFIED BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA'S SEGREGATION LAWS IN A POWERFUL PROTEST.
In 1938, the Southern Conference for Human Welfare held its inaugural meeting in Alabama’s “Magic City.” Upon her arrival, Roosevelt sat directly beside an African American associate, ignoring the designated whites-only section en route. After being told that Birmingham’s segregationist policies prohibited whites and blacks from sitting together at public functions, the First Lady asked for a ruler.

 

“Now measure the distance between this chair and that one,” she said after somebody produced one. Upon examining this gap separating the white and black seating areas, the first lady placed her chair directly in its center. There she defiantly sat, in a racial no-man’s land, until the meeting concluded. “They were afraid to arrest her,” one witness claimed.

 

SHE STARRED IN A MARGARINE COMMERCIAL.

 

 

In fact, Roosevelt advertised a range of products—from mattresses to hot dogs. Her appearance in the 1959 TV spot above helped establish margarine as one of America’s favorite spreads. This appearance netted the former first lady $35,000, which she used to purchase 6000 care packages for impoverished families.

 

SHE HELPED DRAFT THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS.

 

 

Harry S. Truman appointed Roosevelt as a United Nations delegate in 1946. In this role, she became a driving force behind the U.N.’s Declaration of Human Rights, which over 50 member-states eventually worked together to compose.

 

SHE EARNED 35 HONORARY DEGREES.
FDR, meanwhile, only received 31 Among the institutions which bestowed degrees upon the First Lady-turned diplomat were Russell Sage College, the John Marshall College of Law, and Oxford University.

 

Source: Mental Floss

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - EASTER BUNNY

Did you know... that The Easter Bunny is a folkloric figure and symbol of Easter, depicted as a rabbit bringing Easter eggs? Originating among German Lutherans, the "Easter Hare" originally played the role of a judge, evaluating whether children were good or disobedient in behavior at the start of the season of Eastertide. (Wikipedia)

 

Every year on Easter, legend has it that a long-eared, cotton-tailed creature comes to deliver festive baskets full of treats, toys, and delicious candy to children — and even lays colorful eggs for them to find! Among other Easter traditions like hot cross buns and egg hunts, the Easter Bunny has long been a well-known and popular symbol associated with the religious holiday — but have you ever wondered about the Easter Bunny's origins, and how exactly the cute, fluffy woodland creature became such a prevalent symbol of Easter?

 

 

Surprisingly, there's a lot of history behind the mythical story of an egg-bearing rabbit on Easter Sunday (and it's not just because he's cute!). The Easter Bunny actually has a long and deeply rooted history in the Christian holiday — and even in pagan traditions. Here's what to know about the fascinating origins of the Easter Bunny before you welcome the holiday with chocolate rabbits and plenty of bunny-shaped treats — including where the character comes from, why he's associated with Easter eggs, and how he became such a beloved symbol of the holiday over the years.

 

So, where does the Easter Bunny come from?
The Bible has no mention of a mythical hare who delivers eggs to children on the day of Jesus Christ's resurrection — so how exactly did the Easter Bunny become a prominent symbol of one of Christianity's most important holidays? One theory, according to Time, is that the symbol of the rabbit stems from the ancient pagan tradition believed to have started the celebration of Easter — the festival of Eostre, which honored the goddess of fertility and spring. Supposedly, the goddess' animal symbol was a rabbit, which have long traditionally symbolized fertility due to their high reproduction rates.

 

As for how the specific character of the Easter Bunny originated in America, History.com reports that it was first introduced in the 1700s by German immigrants in Pennsylvania, who reportedly brought over their tradition of an egg-laying hare named "Osterhase" or "Oschter Haws." As the story goes, the rabbit would lay colorful eggs as gifts to children who were good — so the kids would make nests in which the bunny could leave his eggs, and would even sometimes leave out carrots in case the hare got hungry! Eventually, the custom spread across America to become a widespread Easter tradition — and over time, the fabled bunny's delivery even expanded from just eggs to include other treats such as chocolate and toys.

 

 

Why does the Easter Bunny bring eggs?
Since rabbits are mammals (and thus give birth to live young), you might be wondering why exactly the Easter Bunny is said to lay eggs on the holiday. The answer may be as simple as the fact that eggs, like the rabbit, have long been an ancient symbol of fertility, rebirth, and new life — all things associated with the springtime celebration of Easter!

 

From a Christian perspective, eggs for Easter are said to represent Jesus' resurrection and his emergence from the tomb. According to History.com, the tradition of decorating eggs for Easter may date back to the 13th century, when eggs were traditionally a forbidden food during the Lent season — which is why people would decorate them as the fasting period came to an end, and then eat them as a way to celebrate Easter Sunday.

 

What does the Easter Bunny look like today?

Today, the Easter Bunny is traditionally depicted with a white rabbit costume with long ears, often wearing clothes in human-like fashion. He can typically be found at Easter parades and other celebratory events for the holiday carrying a basket filled with colorful eggs, candy, and other treats to give out to kids; like Santa Claus on Christmas.

 

Interestingly, it's not always a bunny that brings the Easter eggs in countries outside of the U.S. — in Australia, for example, the spring holiday is greeted with the Easter Bilby, a rabbit-like marsupial native to Australia that's known to be endangered. Other animals include the Easter Cuckoo in Switzerland and, in some parts of Germany, the Easter Fox or the Easter Rooster!

 

Common Cuckoo

 

Source: GoodHouseking - Easter

 

 

Edited May 26, 2020 by DarkRavie

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - POPEYE THE SAILOR

 

Did you know... that Cartoonist E.C. Segar created Popeye the Sailor in 1919 after taking a correspondence course on drawing from a guy in Cleveland? Segar's hometown of Chester, Ill. was chock full of characters that Segar easily adapted to print. Dora Paskel, the owner of a local general store, was unusually tall and thin, wearing her hair in a loose bun at the nape of her neck. J. William Schuchert was the local theater owner who had a voracious appetite for hamburgers.

 

And Frank Fiegel was a one-eyed, pipe-smoking brawler who never turned down a fight.

Frank 'Rocky' Fiegel died in 1947 and was originally buried in an unmarked grave. Popeye fans rectified this in 1996.

 

Fiegel was more likely to down a few bourbons instead of a can of spinach to get his super fighting prowess, but the rest of his caricature fit the Sailor Man to a T. He had the same jutting chin, built frame, and trademark pipe as his cartoon counterpart. But kids were rather scared of Olive Oyl's real-world inspiration, as she was more apt to stay inside her store. Wimpy's rotund figure was based on Popeye creator E.C. Segar's old boss at the local theater. When Segar wasn't lighting lamps, he was sent out to pick up burgers for the owner.

 

Popeye's real-life inspiration is sometimes attributed to a photo of an old sailor who really does resemble Popeye the Sailor Man, but this is just internet folklore.

 

The sailor in the above photo is really a sailor, but he's a British sailor. His name is lost to history, but the Imperial War Museum lists him as "A Leading Stoker nicknamed 'Popeye,'" with 21 years in service and fighting aboard the HMS Rodney in 1940. Fiegel would have been at least 70 years old when this photo of the battleship sailor was taken.

 

Frank "Rocky" Fiegel was actually a bartender and not any kind of sailor, but he did love the kids around Chester, and they used to love to play pranks on the old barfly. Fiegel would impress them with his feats of strength as well as his telltale corncob pipe – something young Segar would never forget. "Popeye" was an homage to an unforgettable man who lived to know his image was soon in 500 newspapers nationwide, the symbol of sticking up for the little guy.

 

 

Source: Blake Stilwell

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - DOG SLED

Did you know... that a dog sled or dog sleigh is a sled pulled by one or more sled dogs used to travel over ice and through snow? Numerous types of sleds are used, depending on their function. They can be used for dog sled racing. (Wikipedia)

 

Dogs have always been an important part of society, and that is perhaps truer in the arctic than anywhere else in the world. Their thick fur and padded paws made them well-designed to survive and thrive in the cold and snow. Because of this, dogs have had a huge hand in helping shape life in the far north. One of the most iconic ways people have worked with dogs to establish life in the Arctic Circle is dog sledding.

 

 

Dogsledding is a method of winter travel developed by northern Indigenous peoples. Early European explorers and trappers adopted it as the most efficient way to haul goods across snow-covered terrain.

 

 

Dogsledding is a method of winter travel developed by northern Indigenous peoples. Early European explorers and trappers adopted it as the most efficient way to haul goods across snow-covered terrain. Teams of two to 12 or more dogs are commonly tied in pairs to a single towline, or gangline. The gangline is attached to a sled, and the dogs pull the sled across the snow. When crossing trackless terrain in deep snow, dogs may be placed in single file between two towlines to follow the driver, who breaks a narrow trail in snowshoes. In the Arctic where the snow is packed hard, Inuit often use the "fan hitch” where each dog is attached to the sled by its own towline.

 

Fan hitching

 

Although dog sledding may have existed before, the oldest archeological evidence of this mode of transportation has been dated to around 1,000 A.D. As far as archeologists can tell, dog sledding was invented by the native and Inuit people in the northern parts of modern Canada, and it then rapidly spread throughout the continent. Early dog sleds didn't look exactly like dog sleds today. Instead of a large sled led by many dogs, it was usually just a single dog pulling minimal cargo - usually firewood and other supplies. As time went on, however, the power of using multiple dogs became more appealing. Larger loads could be carried over longer distances when the effort was distributed over more animals. Even so, dog-sled teams were much smaller than they are today, usually consisting of between two to six dogs per sled.

 

Formation

The first one or two dogs on a gangline are the leaders and guide the team. The “point dogs,” the first pair behind the leaders, encourage the leaders forward and are often leaders-in-training. The “wheel dogs,” the last pair of dogs immediately in front of the sled, are usually the strongest dogs and keep the sled on track. The dogs between the point and wheel dogs are the “swing dogs” and keep the team on the trail when rounding. The leaders are controlled by voice commands from the driver, who either rides the rear of the sled or walks ahead, or runs behind. Early French Canadian drivers called "Marche!" to spur their teams. English explorers misinterpreted this as "mush" — henceforth drivers were called "mushers." (just a note here, marche is the french word for walk)

Around the World
It didn't take long for colonists to recognize the value and power of using dogs during winter, and European settlers quickly began incorporating sled dogs into their lives. The French Canadian military actually used dog teams during the Seven Years' War. They were particularly useful because they were less expensive than horses, but were equally (and often more) equipped to handle large loads and freezing weather.

 

As word of this practice made its way around the colonies, the idea eventually made its way back to Europe. It was particularly appealing to polar adventurers, who saw the value of using these animals on their quests to find the poles. Roald Amundsen, the Norwegian explorer who became the first person to reach the south pole, famously used dog sleds on his journey.

 

Types of Sleds

'Qamutiq' Traditional Inuit Sled

 

Sleds vary with the people who make them and the snow conditions. In the Arctic the Inuit developed the heavy "qamutik," designed to carry loads over rough terrain. Farther south, people made the flat-bottomed toboggan to haul loads through deep snow. Europeans modified these designs and developed the basket sled with its load raised off the snow and supported by two narrow runners for hauling over packed trails. Modern dog-sled drivers have shortened and modified the basket sled for racing.

 

Racing
There has likely always been a casual sport aspect to dog sledding, but the first formal race occurred in 1850. In 1908, the first dog-sled race took place in Nome, Alaska. This route would become famous a little over a decade later, when Leonhard Seppala, a Norwegian native, delivered diphtheria medicine to the struggling town. This journey has become a well-known part of American history, and a statue of the lead dog, Balto, stands in New York City to commemorate this heroic act.

 

The Iditarod is the most famous dog sled race in the U.S. The first glimpses of the modern Iditarod were seen in 1967, when dog sledders at the time tried to create a race that would maintain interest in dog sledding in the face of modern alternatives like snowmobiles. The first few races were well-attended, and then interest waned. The creators planned a new trail through Alaska- this one longer, more intense and stretching all the way from Anchorage to Nome. The first winner took three weeks to make the entire journey in 1973.

 

Norwegian sledders who were inspired by the creation of the Iditarod established the longest dog race in Europe, the Finnmarkslopet. The first race was in 1981, and only three mushers participated. Today, interest is high enough that the race can have two separate classes - one track for teams with up to eight dogs, and another for teams with a maximum of 14. The races cover approximately 310 and 620 miles respectively, and are held on the 10th week of each year. Most of the participants are Norwegian natives, but some dog sledders from other countries join in, as well.

 

Finnmarksløpet - Europas longest dog-sled race - 1200km of extreme

 

Sled dog enthusiasts train teams for a variety of activities from touring wilderness areas to racing for fun and cash prizes. Races are held across Canada, often in association with winter carnivals. Some are short distance races or sprints, where speed is the key to winning. Others are endurance races covering many hundreds of kilometres and several days of travel. The most famous endurance race in Canada is the Yukon Quest, which runs each year between Fairbanks, Alaska and Whitehorse, Yukon. The race is 1,600 km long, taking 10 to 14 days to complete, depending on trail and weather conditions. In Alaska, the Iditarod dogsled race covers a similar distance between Anchorage and Nome, Alaska. Races also occur in many countries around the world, including the northern United States, Greenland, France, Norway and Russia.

 

Types of Dogs
Sled dog breeds were originally developed by northern Indigenous people thousands of years ago. Wolves were domesticated to help with hunting and their progeny were bred to develop dogs that could haul loads, either in packs on their backs or by pulling a sled. The Mahlemut people of northwest Alaska developed one of the earliest breeds that have survived to this day, the Alaskan Malamute, a large dog with a heavy coat of fur and powerful legs. The Inuit in northern Canada developed the Canadian Inuit (Eskimo) Dog, smaller than the malamute, but built for hauling heavy loads over hard-packed snow. Today, both of these breeds are registered purebreds with the Canadian Kennel Club.

 

Canadian Inuit (Eskimo) Dog

 

Alaskan Malamute

 

During the fur trade and the gold rushes of the 19th and early 20th centuries in northwest Canada and Alaska, dogs were brought (often stolen) from the south to supply the demand for freighting dogs. Some of the bigger dogs were bred with malamutes and other Indigenous sled dogs to produce the mixed-breed Mackenzie River Husky, a large freighting dog with heavy fur and long powerful legs for pulling through deep snow.

 

Mackenzie River Husky

 

When dogsled races became popular in the 20th century, dogs were bred more for speed than freighting abilities. The purebred Siberian Husky was imported from Russia because of its smaller size and speed as a racing dog. It was crossed with other breeds of racing dogs, such as greyhounds, to develop the mixed-breed Alaskan Husky. Some Alaskans are bred for all-out speed in sprint races, others to endure multi-day, long-distance races.

 

Siberian Husky

 

Sources: History of Dog Sledding and The Canadian Encyclopedia 

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - Canada's History

Indian encampment, fur trade era

 

Did you know... that when Europeans explored Canada they found all regions occupied by native peoples they called Indians, because the first explorers thought they had reached the East Indies? The native people lived off the land, some by hunting and gathering, others by raising crops. The Huron-Wendat of the Great Lakes region, like the Iroquois, were farmers and hunters. The Cree and Dene of the Northwest were hunter-gatherers. The Sioux were nomadic, following the bison (buffalo) herd. The Inuit lived off Arctic wildlife. West Coast natives preserved fish by drying and smoking. Warfare was common among Aboriginal groups as they competed for land, resources and prestige.

 

The arrival of European traders, missionaries, soldiers and colonists changed the native way of life forever. Large numbers of Aboriginals died of European diseases to which they lacked immunity. However, Aboriginals and Europeans formed strong economic, religious and military bonds in the first 200 years of coexistence which laid the foundations of Canada.

 

The First Europeans

Recreated Norse buildings at L'Anse aux Meadows

The Vikings from Iceland who colonized Greenland 1,000 years ago also reached Labrador and the island of Newfoundland. The remains of their settlement, l’Anse aux Meadows, are a World Heritage site.

European exploration began in earnest in 1497 with the expedition of John Cabot, who was the first to draw a map of Canada’s East Coast.

 

John Cabot, an Italian immigrant to England, was the first to map Canada’s Atlantic shore, setting foot on Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island in 1497 and claiming the New Founde Land for England. English settlement did not begin until 1610.

 

Exploring a River, Naming Canada

Portrait of Jacques Cartier by

Théophile Hamel, ca. 1844.

Cartier was the first European

to explore the St. Lawrence River
and to set eyes on present-day

Québec City and Montreal

Between 1534 and 1542, Jacques Cartier made three voyages across the Atlantic, claiming the land for King Francis I of France. Cartier heard two captured guides speak the Iroquoian word kanata, meaning “village.” By the 1550s, the name of Canada began appearing on maps.

 

Royal New France
In 1604, the first European settlement north of Florida was established by French explorers Pierre de Monts and Samuel de Champlain, first on St. Croix Island (in present-day Maine), then at Port-Royal, in Acadia (present-day Nova Scotia). In 1608 Champlain built a fortress at what is now Québec City. The colonists struggled against a harsh climate. Champlain allied the colony with the Algonquin, Montagnais, and Huron, historic enemies of the Iroquois, a confederation of five (later six) First Nations who battled with the French settlements for a century. The French and the Iroquois made peace in 1701.

 

The French and Aboriginal people collaborated in the vast fur-trade economy, driven by the demand for beaver pelts in Europe. Outstanding leaders like Jean Talon, Bishop Laval, and Count Frontenac built a French Empire in North America that reached from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico.

 

(from left to right)

Count Frontenac refused to surrender Quebec to the English in 1690, saying: “My only reply will be from the mouths of my cannons!” Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d’Iberville, was a great hero of New France, winning many victories over the English, from James Bay in the north to Nevis in the Caribbean, in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
 

Sir Guy Carleton (Lord Dorchester), as Governor of Quebec, defended the rights of the Canadiens, defeated an American military invasion of Quebec in 1775, and supervised the Loyalist migration to Nova Scotia and Quebec in 1782-83.

 

Struggle for a Continent
In 1670, King Charles II of England granted the Hudson’s Bay Company exclusive trading rights over the watershed draining into Hudson Bay. For the next 100 years the Company competed with Montreal-based traders. The skilled and courageous men who travelled by canoe were called voyageurs and coureurs des bois, and formed strong alliances with First Nations.

 

Voyageurs at Dawn, 1871

 

English colonies along the Atlantic seaboard, dating from the early 1600s, eventually became richer and more populous than New France. In the 1700s France and Great Britain battled for control of North America. In 1759, the British defeated the French in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Québec City — marking the end of France’s empire in America. The commanders of both armies, Brigadier James Wolfe and the Marquis de Montcalm, were killed leading their troops in battle.

 

The Province of Quebec
Following the war, Great Britain renamed the colony the “Province of Quebec.” The French speaking Catholic people, known as habitants or Canadiens, strove to preserve their way of life in the English-speaking, Protestant-ruled British Empire.

 

A Tradition of Accommodation

Quebec Act, 1774

To better govern the French Roman Catholic majority, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774. One of the constitutional foundations of Canada, the Quebec Act accommodated the principles of British institutions to the reality of the province. It allowed religious freedom for Catholics and permitted them to hold public office, a practice not then allowed in Britain. The Quebec Act restored French civil law while maintaining British criminal law.

 

United Empire Loyalists
In 1776, the 13 British colonies to the south of Quebec declared independence and formed the United States. North America was again divided by war. More than 40,000 people loyal to the Crown, called “Loyalists,” fled the oppression of the American Revolution to settle in Nova Scotia and Quebec. Joseph Brant led thousands of Loyalist Mohawk Indians into Canada. The Loyalists came from Dutch, German, British, Scandinavian, Aboriginal and other origins and from Presbyterian, Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Jewish, Quaker, and Catholic religious backgrounds. About 3,000 black Loyalists, freedmen and slaves, came north seeking a better life. In turn, in 1792, some black Nova Scotians, who were given poor land, moved on to establish Freetown, Sierra Leone (West Africa), a new British colony for freed slaves.

 

Want to read more about Canada's History?  Click below. 

 

Source: Discover Canada

 

 

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - OLIVE OIL

Did you know... that olive oil is a liquid fat obtained from olives, a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin? The oil is produced by pressing whole olives. It is commonly used in cooking, for frying foods or as a salad dressing. (Wikipedia)

 

The History of Olive Oil

Mediterranean Olive Tree

The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin. Archeological evidence shows that olive oil was produced as early as 4000 BC. Besides food, olive oil was used historically for medicine, lamp fuel, soap, and skin care.

 

The majority of olive oil is produced in the European Union, with Spain being the largest producer of olive oil in the world, followed by Italy and Greece. In the United States, olive oil is produced in California, Arizona, Texas, Georgia, Florida, Oregon, and Hawaii.

 

Variety and maturation are two of the most important factors of olives that influence the quality and taste of the final olive oil. There are hundreds of varieties of olive trees. A wide range of olive varieties are used in the production of olive oil. These include Mission, Manzanillo, Sevillano, Arbequina, Koroneiki, Arbosana, Ascolano, Frantoio, Leccino, Pendolino, Maurino, and Coratina.

 

Olive oil production begins with harvesting the olives. Traditionally, olives were hand-picked. Currently, harvesting is performed by a variety of types of shakers that transmit vibrations to the tree branches, causing the olives to drop into nets that have previously been placed under the tree canopy. Increasing ripeness generally increases yield in terms of release of olives from the tree branches. However, over-mature olives do not possess the best sensory qualities for oil production. Therefore, harvesting time is frequently a compromise between harvesting efficiency and final oil quality.

 

Hand picking olives

 

After harvesting, the olives are washed to remove dirt, leaves, and twigs. After the twigs are filtered out with grids, the fruit is ready for processing into oil. Fewer than 24 hours from harvest to processing produces the highest-grade oils.

 

 

 

 

Traditional Olive Oil Processing

Traditional olive oil processing begins with crushing the olives into a paste. The purpose of the crushing is to facilitate the release of the oil from the vacuoles. Large granite stones such as the one shown in the photograph were traditionally used to crush olives. In the early days, donkeys were used to pull the stone wheel around. This particular mill is motorized and also includes wiper blades, both of which are more recent additions to the traditional stone mill.

 

The next step in the process involves malaxing the paste (mixing the paste). The paste is mixed for 20–45 minutes to allow small oil droplets to combine into bigger ones. This process ensures the olives are well ground and allows the fruit enzymes to produce desirable aromas and flavors. Longer mixing times increase yield; however, they may also result in increased oxidation and decreased shelf life and quality.

 

Following milling and malaxing, the paste is spread on fiber disks, which are stacked on top of each other, then placed into a press. Traditionally, disks were made of hemp or coconut. In modern times, they are made of synthetic fibers, which can be more easily cleaned. The stacks of discs are then pressed in a hydraulic press. Pressure is applied to the disks, compacting the solid phase and percolating the liquid phases (oil and vegetation water). Pressures up to 4,000 kPa are used. Water can be used to run down the sides of the discs to increase the speed of percolation. The liquids are then separated by decantation or centrifugation.

 

Modern Olive Oil Processing

Modern olive mills are partially or fully automated and have replaced granite crushers with metal crushers. They consist of a stainless steel body and a stainless steel crusher that rotates at high speed. The olives are typically thrown against a hammer-shaped metal grating, thus the name hammermill. Alternatives include toothed disc, cylinder, and roller mills. Modern milling is very gentle in order to avoid overheating of the paste. Cold pressed (extra virgin) oils must not exceed 27˚C at any step in the processing of the oil.

 

Modern malaxers are horizontal troughs with spiral mixing blades. Typically, two or three cylindrical vats are used in tandem, mixing the paste at slow speeds (15–20 rpm) for anywhere between 20 minutes and 75 minutes. The vats are jacketed so that the paste can be heated or water added during this process to increase the yield, although that generally results in a lowering of oil quality. New malaxers have an atmosphere controlled by an inert gas (i.e., nitrogen or carbon dioxide) to reduce oxidation and produce higher-quality oils.

 

Following modern milling processes, the paste is pumped into an industrial decanter where the phases are separated using centrifugation. This step can involve a three-phase decanter or a two-phase decanter. Water can be added to facilitate the extraction process. The decanter is a large-capacity horizontal centrifuge rotating approximately 3,500 rpm. In three-phase decanting, inside the rotating conical drum is a coil that rotates more slowly than the drum. This pushes the solids out of one end of the system and the water and oil out the other end. Three-phase decanting results in loss of a portion of the oil polyphenolics due to the higher quantity of water used. It also produces larger quantities of vegetative water that then need to be processed and have negative environmental effects. Two-phase decanters were created to solve these problems. In this process, the olive paste is separated into two phases, oil and wet pomace. The decanter has two exits instead of three, and the water is expelled with the pomace, resulting in a wetter pomace. The two-phase decanter thus solves the phenol washing issue and uses less water, but increases the waste produced. Regardless of the process used for oil extraction, a final centrifugation process is needed to separate the oil from the vegetation water. Vertical centrifuges, operating at lower speeds of 6,000 rpm under controlled temperature conditions, are used for this purpose. 

 

State-of-the art, continuous commercial olive mills can be purchased from companies like Gruppo Pieralisi. One of the company’s units is shown in the photo on this page. It is a closed system of continuous milling that provides minimal oxygen contact using a two-phase extraction process. This mill processes 3 tons of olives an hour.

 

The Sinolea method is yet another method to extract olive oil. In this process, rows of metal discs are dipped into the paste, and the oil preferentially sticks to the metal and is removed by scrapers in a continuous process. Based on the varying surface tension between the oil and vegetation water, the oil adheres to the steel plates while the other two phases remain behind. The Sinolea method continuously introduces hundreds of plates into the paste and is not very efficient, leaving lots of oil in the paste. The final paste still requires decanting.

 

Following processing, the oil is stored in large stainless steel tanks with nitrogen blanketing to protect it from oxygen. Although not necessary, virgin olive oil can be filtered prior to bottling. Diatomaceous earth is frequently used as a filter aid. Colored glass bottles are ideal packaging for olive oil because the colored glass blocks the UV light and is also impermeable to oxygen. Bottling under nitrogen is a recommended practice.

 

Olive Oil Standards
The International Olive Council (IOC) sets standards that most olive oil–producing countries use; however, the United States does not legally recognize those standards. In 2014, the Olive Oil Commission of California approved olive oil standards that are stricter than the IOC standards. The term virgin universally means the oil was processed by the use of mechanical means only, with no chemical treatment. The new standards in California include more precise methods for testing adulteration and ban misleading marketing terms for refined oils, such as “light” and “pure.” Furthermore, the benchmark for free fatty acidity in extra-virgin olive oil is set to 0.5%, below the international standard of 0.8%. In addition to extra-virgin olive oil, lower grades of olive oil include virgin olive oil, which has a free fatty acid content of below 1.5%. Lower grades of olive oil include refined olive oils and olive pomace oils.

 

Opportunities for Co-Products
Recent research has focused on better utilization of the co-products of olive oil processing. These co-products contain healthy polyphenolics and fibers that can be beneficial to human health. Thus, new uses for the vegetative water and their extracts are being explored as foods, supplements, and cosmetics. In addition, methods to stabilize the wet pomace in an efficient manner are being studied, as are value-added final product uses for the pomace itself in foods.

 

Source:  FOOD TECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE | ARTICLE / Tara McHugh

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - TUNDRA

Tundra plants and glacier, Scoresby Sound, Greenland

 

Did you know... that in physical geography, tundra is a type of biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons? The term tundra comes through Russian тундра from the Kildin Sámi word тӯндар meaning "uplands", "treeless mountain tract". (Wikipedia)

 

Tundra, a major zone of treeless level or rolling ground found in cold regions, mostly north of the Arctic Circle (Arctic tundra) or above the timberline on high mountains (alpine tundra). Tundra is known for large stretches of bare ground and rock and for patchy mantles of low vegetation such as mosses, lichens, herbs, and small shrubs. This surface supports a meagre but unique variety of animals. The Finns called their treeless northern reaches the tunturi, but the concept of a vast frozen plain as a special ecological realm called tundra was developed by the Russians.

 

tundra - Alaskan mountain and tundra vegetation in the fall.

 

One constant factor shaping the tundra is alternate freezing and thawing of the ground. Along with the factors mentioned above, this freeze-thaw cycle sets the tundra apart from two ecosystems frequently found adjacent to it—the icy polar barrens on the one hand and the evergreen taiga on the other. Permafrost—perennially frozen ground—is a significant feature of the Arctic tundra; however, it does not typically occur in alpine regions.

 

Distribution
The global extent of the tundra biome is considerable, accounting for roughly 10 percent of Earth’s surface. The southern limit of Arctic tundra follows the northern edge of the coniferous forest belt. In North America this line lies above latitude 60° N, while in Eurasia most of it occurs north of 70° N—except in eastern Siberia, where it extends southward to 60° N in Kamchatka. The northward bulge of forest in Eurasia is a result of the warmer summers that occur over that large contiguous landmass.

 

Southern limit of Arctic tundra and approximate line of demarcation

between Low and High Arctic.

 

Alpine tundra covers approximately 3 percent of Earth’s land surface, and it is mostly found in the Northern Hemisphere. This habitat can be found in mountainous areas worldwide, occurring at high elevations where temperatures are too low and winds are too strong for the growth of trees. The average elevation where alpine tundra occurs is generally higher near the Equator than at the poles.

 

Because nearly all of Antarctica is covered with ice, it lacks a well-developed tundra, though lichens, mosses, and at least three species of flowering plants occur in more favourable habitats there.

 

Environmental Conditions
Climate
Tundra climates vary considerably. The most severe occur in the Arctic regions, where temperatures fluctuate from 4 °C (about 40 °F) in midsummer to –32 °C (–25 °F) during the winter months. Alpine tundra has a more moderate climate: summers are cool, with temperatures that range from 3 to 12 °C (37 to 54 °F), and winters are moderate, with temperatures that rarely fall below –18 °C (0 °F).

 

Aerial view of high alpine tundra near the Noatak River in the Noatak National Preserve, Alaska.

 

Unlike other biomes, such as the taiga, the Arctic tundra is defined more by its low summer temperatures than by its low winter temperatures. Coastal tundra ecosystems are cooler and foggier than those farther inland. Late summer and early fall are particularly cloudy seasons because large amounts of water are available for evaporation. With the first winter freeze, however, the clear skies return.

 

Over most of the Arctic tundra, annual precipitation, measured as liquid water, amounts to less than 38 cm (15 inches), roughly two-thirds of it falling as summer rain. The remainder falls in expanded form as snow, which can reach total accumulations of 64 cm (25 inches) to (rarely) more than 191 cm (75 inches). Annual precipitation has a wide range in alpine tundra, but it is generally higher in Arctic tundra. For example, annual precipitation may be as much as 64 cm (25 inches) at higher elevations in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado but may be less than 7.6 cm (3 inches) in the northwestern Himalayas. Blinding snowstorms, or whiteouts, obscure the landscape during the winter months, and summer rains can be heavy. The stratification of the soil and the inclination of the alpine slopes allow for good drainage, however.

 

Although winds are not as strong in the Arctic as in alpine tundras, their influence on snowdrift patterns and whiteouts is an important climatic factor. Blizzard conditions developing in either location may reduce visibility to roughly 9 metres (about 30 feet) and cause snow crystals to penetrate tiny openings in clothing and buildings. Winds in the alpine tundras are often quite strong; they may average 8 to 16 km (5 to 10 miles) per hour only 60 cm (about 24 inches) above ground level, and they quite frequently reach 120 to 200 km (about 75 to 125 miles) per hour in high reaches of the Rocky Mountains and the Alps.

 

Soils
As noted above, permafrost is an ever-present feature of the Arctic tundra. The southern limit of continuous permafrost occurs within the northern forest belt of North America and Eurasia, and it can be correlated with average annual air temperatures of –7 °C (20 °F). South of this zone, permafrost exists in patches. Over much of the Arctic, permafrost extends to depths of 350 to 650 metres (1,150 to 2,100 feet). In unglaciated areas of Siberia, however, permafrost may reach 1,450 metres (4,760 feet).

Distribution of permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere.

 

The presence of permafrost retards the downward movement of water through the soil, and lowlands of the Arctic tundra become saturated and boggy during the summer thaw. During the winter, water in the soil can freeze into a lens of ice that causes the ground above it to form into a hilly structure called a pingo. Alpine tundra is generally drier, even though the amount of precipitation, especially as snow, is higher than in Arctic tundra. In alpine tundra the lack of a continuous permafrost layer and the steep topography result in rapid drainage, except in certain alpine meadows where topography flattens out.

 

Pingo - Pingos near Tuktoyaktuk, Northwest Territories, Canada                        

Pingo - Diagram explaining the formation of open-system and closed-system pingos

 

Patterned ground, a conspicuous feature of most tundras, results from the differential movement of soil, stone, and rock on slopes and level land, plus the downward creep (solifluction) of the overlying active layer of soil. (Because permafrost is impermeable to water, waterlogged soil near the surface slides easily down a slope.) These phenomena are a result of the freeze-thaw cycle common to the tundra and are especially common in spring and fall. In alpine regions, surface features such as rock rings, stripes, and polygons are seen, usually measuring 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 inches) across. Where there is adequate moisture for soil lubrication, solifluction terraces and lobes are common. In the Arctic tundra, solifluction is often cited as the reason why rock slabs may be found standing on end.

 

Thawed surface of the permafrost on the tundra in summer, Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia.

 

Tundra soils are usually classified as Gelisols or Cryosols, depending on the soil classification system used. Both are easily eroded soil types characterized by the presence of permafrost and showing an active surface layer shaped by the alternating freezing and thawing that comes with seasonal variations in temperature. In the higher latitudes of the Arctic, the summer thaw penetrates to a depth of 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 inches). In lower latitudes characterized by full plant cover and well-drained soils, the thaw penetrates from 0.5 to 3 metres (1.5 to 10 feet). Most biological activity, in terms of root growth, animal burrowing, and decomposition of organic matter, is limited to the active layer. Although the permafrost layer exists only in Arctic tundra soils, the freeze-thaw layer occurs in soils of both Arctic and alpine tundra.

 

Gelisol soil profile showing a

year-round frozen subsurface

layer (permafrost) below a

dark surface horizon rich in

organic matter.

 

Cryosol soil profile from Canada

showing patterned deformations caused

by cycles of freeze and thaw.

 

Want to read more on Tunda?  Click below. 

Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica

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Fact of the Day - TURNER SYNDROME

Did you know... that people with Turner syndrome have an abnormally short stature—the average height of a person with TS is 4 ft 8 in? Other distinctive physical features of TS include low-set ears, webbed neck (excess skin on the neck), scoliosis, and fingernails and toenails that turn upward.

 

Turner syndrome (TS) is a condition that affects approximately 1 out of every 2,000 girls in the United States. It is caused by the complete or partial lack of one of the female sex chromosomes. This results in a range of complications, including stunted growth and development, an increased risk of heart and kidney problems, and infertility.

 

Turner syndrome was first discovered in 1938 by Dr. Henry Turner while studying a group of 7 girls who all had the same unusual developmental and physical features.

 

Though most people today refer to the condition as Turner syndrome or TS, your doctor may call it gonadal dysgenesis. This is because one of the defining characteristics of TS is that it affects the ovaries—the primary female gonads or sex glands. Abnormal development or premature insufficiency of the ovaries affects their ability to produce estrogen. This can result in a variety of problems, including infertility, irregular or absent menstrual periods, early menopause, and osteoporosis.

 

Though every girl or woman with TS experiences her own unique symptoms and signs associated with the disorder, there are common characteristics that they all typically share. Most commonly, people with Turner syndrome have an abnormally short stature—the average height of a person with TS who has not been treated with growth hormone is 4 ft 8 in. Also, most people experience early menopause due to ovarian insufficiency.

 

Distinctive physical features may also be associated with the Turner syndrome. These include:

• low-set ears
• neck hair that extends down toward the shoulders
• excess skin on the neck
• droopy eyes
• scoliosis
• fingernails and toenails that turn slightly upward
• flat feet
• increased angulation at the elbow

Actress Linda Hunt (Turner Syndrome)

 

There is no cure for TS, but there are ways to manage it. Human growth hormone and estrogen replacement therapy are widely used in patients with Turner syndrome and are typically started in childhood. For these treatments to give the most benefit, an early diagnosis is essential.

 

Turner Syndrome Symptoms
The Most Common Characteristics of TS

 

Turner syndrome (TS) was first described in 1938, when Dr. Henry Turner observed a group of girls who all had the same unique physical features—short height, webbed necks, and undeveloped sex features. Because Dr. Turner could see these features, they aren't truly symptoms—they are signs.

 

Symptoms and signs have subtle differences, but an easy way to tell the two apart is that symptoms can only be recognized by the person with the illness. For example, pain is a symptom—it's a sensation only the person experiencing it can feel. Signs, on the other hand, can be observed by someone else. Swollen hands, for instance, is a sign.

 

With Turner syndrome, certain physical signs will alert a doctor to the possibility that you or your child has the condition. These include:

• short stature: This is the most common sign of TS—the average height of girls with Turner syndrome (who haven't been treated with growth hormone) is 4 ft 8 in.
• undeveloped sex features: This includes lack of breast development, delayed menstruation, and undeveloped feminine body shape.
• mouth and jaw abnormalities: Girls with TS may have high-arched roof of mouth, crowded teeth, and a receding lower jaw.
• broad chest
• droopy eyes
• low-set ears
• webbed neck: This is extra skin around the neck.
• low hairline: In girls with TS, their hair extends down back of the neck toward the shoulders.
• fingernails and toenails that point slightly upward
• swollen hands and feet: This sign is usually present only at birth.
• increased angulation at the elbow

 

About half of girls who have TS receive a Turner syndrome diagnosis at birth because they show obvious physical signs of the condition. However, that's not the case with everyone. Some girls don't show signs of TS until later in childhood. To a lesser extent, some even experience a normal puberty and have such subtle signs that they may not be diagnosed with Turner syndrome until adulthood.

 

The Cause of Turner Syndrome
A Chromosomal Defect Causes this Condition

 

Turner syndrome (TS) is caused by a defect of one female sex chromosome.

 

Simply put, we all have a pair of sex chromosomes. Men have one X and one Y chromosome, while women have two X chromosomes. With Turner syndrome, one female X chromosome is normal, while the other only partially exists—or it may be completely missing.

 

 

Your sex chromosomes determine your biological sex. Each sex chromosome contains genes that control your physical and hormonal features. If you have Turner syndrome, certain features will not develop or function as they should because you're missing all or part of a chromosome.

 

Researchers have spent years trying to determine which genes on the X chromosome cause the abnormalities of Turner syndrome. In 1997, scientists made a significant discovery—the short stature homeobox (SHOX) gene.

 

The SHOX gene plays a large role in determining height and bone growth. It is located on the X chromosome in both men and women. When all or part of an X chromosome is missing, so is the SHOX gene. This accounts for the short stature commonly associated with Turner syndrome.

 

The medical community does not fully understand why these chromosomal abnormalities occur. However, they believe it is not an inherited condition. Also, they know that parents do not cause—and cannot prevent-Turner syndrome in —their daughters.

 

Want to learn more about Turner Syndrome?  Click below. 

 

Source: EndocrineWeb

 

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Fact of the Day - SEALS

Did you know... that Pinnipeds, commonly known as seals, are a widely distributed and diverse clade of carnivorous, fin-footed, semiaquatic marine mammals? They comprise the extant families Odobenidae, Otariidae, and Phocidae. There are 33 extant species of pinnipeds, and more than 50 extinct species have been described from fossils. (Wikipedia)

 

Seals are fin-footed, semiaquatic marine mammals.  They are divided in 3 families: phocidae, the earless or true seal (eg. common seal), otariidae, eared seals (eg. fur seals and sea lions) and odobenidae (walrus).

 

Seals are found in most waters of the world, mainly in the Arctic and Antarctica but also in some areas of the tropics.  The lifespan of seals ranges from 15 to 40 years, depending on the sex, species and living conditions. Females usually live longer than males. 

 

The smallest seal species is the Baikal seal (Pusa sibirica) reaching 1.3 meters (4 ft 3 in) in length and weighing from 63 to 70 kilograms (139 to 154 pounds).

Baikal Seal

 

The largest seal species is the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) reaching up to 5.8 meters (19 feet) in length and weighing up to 4,000 kilograms (8,800 pounds).  

 

Southern Elephant Seal

 

All seals share some general physical characteristics. They all have streamlined bodies for moving through the water and four flippers. Their bodies are covered in soft fur, and under their skin all seals have a layer of blubber which helps insulate them from cold temperatures. However, seals that live in colder climates have more blubber than those that live in warmer climates, even within the same species of seal.

 

Seals spend most of their lives in the water and most seal species live in very large social groups called colonies that may come together to sunbathe in masses of hundreds, and take to the beach to mate and raise young in tightly packed gatherings of thousands.

 

 

Seals hunt alone or in groups. Their specialized bodies allow them to hunt for food in the water effectively. Their fins give them the ability to move very rapidly through the water, and seals can also dive deep into the ocean. Seals also have whiskers that are highly sensitive to movements and vibrations, making them effective hunters during the day or night.

 

They have well-developed senses — their eyesight and hearing are adapted for both air and water.

 

Seals feed mainly on fish, but shellfish, squid and octopus also feature prominently in their diet. Seals are usually opportunistic feeders and are willing to eat most meat that is available depending on the location. They’re considered to be predatory carnivores, and although most seals eat a vast variety of ocean creatures, some species eat only specific prey, such as crustaceans or krill. And a few, like the leopard seal, feed on large vertebrates, such as penguins and other seals.

 

 

They eat a great deal of food each day so it can take them many hours to feed each day. Generally the will consume up to 5% of their overall body weight.

 

Depending on the type of seal, they can dive at least 300 meters (1,000 feet). Some of them can dive up to 900 meters (3,000 feet). It is believed they can go deeper than that if necessary for food. The deepest recorded dive of a seal is 2,388 meters (7,835 feet) by a southern elephant seal.

 

Seals dive for three minutes at a time typically, and most species can stay under water up to 30 minutes. But champion divers, such as elephant seals, can hold their breath for about 2 hours.

 

 

It can swim at speeds of 37 km/h (23 mph) when it is pursuing its prey, although most of the time it cruises at about 6 km/h (4 mph).

 

Seals can sleep both in the water and on land, making it easier for them to choose whatever’s best for their situation to avoid dangers. Scientists have recorded them sleeping for minutes at a time while slowly drifting downward in a belly-up orientation. Like other marine mammals, seals sleep in water with half of their brain awake so that they can detect and escape from predators. When they are asleep on land, both sides of their brain go into sleep mode.

 

Seals use plenty of sounds for communicating with each other. They can also communicate through movements.

 

 

The mating system of seals varies from extreme polygyny to serial monogamy.  Of the 33 species, 20 breed on land, and the remaining 13 breed on ice.

 

Mothers carry their young for a gestation period of around 12 months. For most species, birthing takes place in the spring and summer months. Typically, single pups are born; twins are uncommon and have high mortality rates.

 

The milk that the females offer their pups can be up to 50% fat. This accounts for the astonishing growth of them. When researchers first started observing pups they couldn’t believe that they would gain 3 to 5 pounds (1.3 to 2.2 kilograms) per day. Yet this is possible due to the amount of fat that is in the milk they drink. They are generally weaned from 3 to 6 weeks of life depending on the species of seal.

 

Killer whales, some species of sharks (especially the great white shark), Arctic wolves, polar bears, pumas, brown hyenas, various canid species and even other types of seals prey on seals. Some species of seals don’t have any natural predators due to where they live or their size.

 

Humans have traditionally hunted seals for their meat, blubber and fur coats, however seals are now protected by international law.

 

Seals have been kept in captivity since at least the 17th century. They can be found in facilities around the world, as their large size and playfulness make them popular attractions.

 

The Japanese sea lion and the Caribbean monk seal have become extinct in the past century, while the Mediterranean monk seal and Hawaiian monk seal are ranked Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

 

Seals belong to the order Carnivora and their closest living relatives are bears and musteloids (weasels, raccoons, skunks and red pandas), having diverged about 50 million years ago.

 

Source: JustFunFacts

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - COMPUTER-GENERATED IMAGERY (CGI)

Did you know... that Computer-Generated Imagery is the application of computer graphics to create or contribute to images in art, printed media, video games, films, television programs, shorts, commercials, videos, and simulators? (Wikipedia)

 

The visual scenes may be dynamic or static and may be two-dimensional (2D), though the term "CGI" is most commonly used to refer to 3D computer graphics used for creating scenes or special effects in films and television. Additionally, the use of 2D CGI is often mistakenly referred to as "traditional animation", most often in the case when dedicated animation software such as Adobe Flash or Toon Boom is not used or the CGI is hand drawn using a tablet and mouse.

 

Morphogenetic Creations computer-generated digital art exhibition by Andy Lomas at Watermans Arts Centre,

west London, in 2016

 

The term 'CGI animation' refers to dynamic CGI rendered as a movie. The term virtual world refers to agent-based, interactive environments. Computer graphics software is used to make computer-generated imagery for films, etc. Availability of CGI software and increased computer speeds have allowed individual artists and small companies to produce professional-grade films, games, and fine art from their home computers. This has brought about an Internet subculture with its own set of global celebrities, clichés, and technical vocabulary. The evolution of CGI led to the emergence of virtual cinematography in the 1990s where runs of the simulated camera are not constrained by the laws of physics.

 

Static images and landscapes

Fractal landscape

 

Not only do animated images form part of computer-generated imagery, natural looking landscapes (such as fractal landscapes) are also generated via computer algorithms. A simple way to generate fractal surfaces is to use an extension of the triangular mesh method, relying on the construction of some special case of a de Rham curve, e.g. midpoint displacement. For instance, the algorithm may start with a large triangle, then recursively zoom in by dividing it into four smaller Sierpinski triangles, then interpolate the height of each point from its nearest neighbors. The creation of a Brownian surface may be achieved not only by adding noise as new nodes are created but by adding additional noise at multiple levels of the mesh. Thus a topographical map with varying levels of height can be created using relatively straightforward fractal algorithms. Some typical, easy-to-program fractals used in CGI are the plasma fractal and the more dramatic fault fractal.

 

A large number of specific techniques have been researched and developed to produce highly focused computer-generated effects — e.g. the use of specific models to represent the chemical weathering of stones to model erosion and produce an "aged appearance" for a given stone-based surface.

 

Architectural scenes

A computer generated image featuring a house, made in Blender

 

Modern architects use services from computer graphic firms to create 3-dimensional models for both customers and builders. These computer generated models can be more accurate than traditional drawings. Architectural animation (which provides animated movies of buildings, rather than interactive images) can also be used to see the possible relationship a building will have in relation to the environment and its surrounding buildings. The rendering of architectural spaces without the use of paper and pencil tools is now a widely accepted practice with a number of computer-assisted architectural design systems.

 

Architectural modeling tools allow an architect to visualize a space and perform "walk-throughs" in an interactive manner, thus providing "interactive environments" both at the urban and building levels. Specific applications in architecture not only include the specification of building structures (such as walls and windows) and walk-throughs but the effects of light and how sunlight will affect a specific design at different times of the day.

 

Architectural modeling tools have now become increasingly internet-based. However, the quality of internet-based systems still lags behind those of sophisticated in-house modeling systems.

 

In some applications, computer-generated images are used to "reverse engineer" historical buildings. For instance, a computer-generated reconstruction of the monastery at Georgenthal in Germany was derived from the ruins of the monastery, yet provides the viewer with a "look and feel" of what the building would have looked like in its day.

 

Anatomical models

A CT pulmonary angiogram image generated by a computer from a collection of x-rays

 

Computer generated models used in skeletal animation are not always anatomically correct. However, organizations such as the Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute have developed anatomically correct computer-based models. Computer generated anatomical models can be used both for instructional and operational purposes. To date, a large body of artist produced medical images continue to be used by medical students, such as images by Frank Netter, e.g. Cardiac images. However, a number of online anatomical models are becoming available.

 

A single patient X-ray is not a computer generated image, even if digitized. However, in applications which involve CT scans a three-dimensional model is automatically produced from a large number of single slice x-rays, producing "computer generated image". Applications involving magnetic resonance imaging also bring together a number of "snapshots" (in this case via magnetic pulses) to produce a composite, internal image.

 

In modern medical applications, patient-specific models are constructed in 'computer assisted surgery'. For instance, in total knee replacement, the construction of a detailed patient-specific model can be used to carefully plan the surgery. These three-dimensional models are usually extracted from multiple CT scans of the appropriate parts of the patient's own anatomy. Such models can also be used for planning aortic valve implantations, one of the common procedures for treating heart disease. Given that the shape, diameter, and position of the coronary openings can vary greatly from patient to patient, the extraction (from CT scans) of a model that closely resembles a patient's valve anatomy can be highly beneficial in planning the procedure.

 

Generating cloth and skin images

Computer-generated wet fur

 

 

Models of cloth generally fall into three groups:

• The geometric-mechanical structure at yarn crossing
• The mechanics of continuous elastic sheets
• The geometric macroscopic features of cloth.

To date, making the clothing of a digital character automatically fold in a natural way remains a challenge for many animators.

 

In addition to their use in film, advertising and other modes of public display, computer generated images of clothing are now routinely used by top fashion design firms.

 

The challenge in rendering human skin images involves three levels of realism:

• Photo realism in resembling real skin at the static level
• Physical realism in resembling its movements
• Function realism in resembling its response to actions.

The finest visible features such as fine wrinkles and skin pores are the size of about 100 µm or 0.1 millimetres. Skin can be modeled as a 7-dimensional bidirectional texture function (BTF) or a collection of bidirectional scattering distribution function (BSDF) over the target's surfaces.

 

Interactive simulation and visualization
Interactive visualization is a general term that applies to the rendering of data that may vary dynamically and allowing a user to view the data from multiple perspectives. The applications areas may vary significantly, ranging from the visualization of the flow patterns in fluid dynamics to specific computer aided design applications. The data rendered may correspond to specific visual scenes that change as the user interacts with the system — e.g. simulators, such as flight simulators, make extensive use of CGI techniques for representing the world.

 

At the abstract level, an interactive visualization process involves a "data pipeline" in which the raw data is managed and filtered to a form that makes it suitable for rendering. This is often called the "visualization data". The visualization data is then mapped to a "visualization representation" that can be fed to a rendering system. This is usually called a "renderable representation". This representation is then rendered as a displayable image. As the user interacts with the system (e.g. by using joystick controls to change their position within the virtual world) the raw data is fed through the pipeline to create a new rendered image, often making real-time computational efficiency a key consideration in such applications.

 

Computer animation

While computer generated images of landscapes may be static, the term computer animation only applies to dynamic images that resemble a movie. However, in general, the term computer animation refers to dynamic images that do not allow user interaction, and the term virtual world is used for the interactive animated environments.

 

Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the art of stop motion animation of 3D models and frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. Computer generated animations are more controllable than other more physically based processes, such as constructing miniatures for effects shots or hiring extras for crowd scenes, and because it allows the creation of images that would not be feasible using any other technology. It can also allow a single graphic artist to produce such content without the use of actors, expensive set pieces, or props.

 

To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen and repeatedly replaced by a new image which is similar to the previous image, but advanced slightly in the time domain (usually at a rate of 24 or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures.

Virtual worlds

 

A virtual world is a simulated environment, which allows the user to interact with animated characters, or interact with other users through the use of animated characters known as avatars. Virtual worlds are intended for its users to inhabit and interact, and the term today has become largely synonymous with interactive 3D virtual environments, where the users take the form of avatars visible to others graphically. These avatars are usually depicted as textual, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional graphical representations, although other forms are possible (auditory and touch sensations for example). Some, but not all, virtual worlds allow for multiple users.

 

Source:  Kids Encyclopedia and Wikipedia

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Fact of the Day - LOUIS PASTEUR

Louis Pasteur

 

Did you know.... that Louis Pasteur was a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization? He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of diseases, and his discoveries have saved many lives ever since. (Wikipedia)

 

Scientist Louis Pasteur came up with the food preparing process known as pasteurization; he also developed a vaccination for anthrax and rabies.

 

French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822, in Dole, located in the Jura region of France. He grew up in the town of Arbois, and his father, Jean-Joseph Pasteur, was a tanner and a sergeant major decorated with the Legion of Honor during the Napoleonic Wars. An average student, Pasteur was skilled at drawing and painting. He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree (1840) and Bachelor of Science degree (1842) at the Royal College of Besançon and a doctorate (1847) from the École Normale in Paris.

 

Pasteur then spent several years researching and teaching at Dijon Lycée. In 1848, he became a professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, where he met Marie Laurent, the daughter of the university's rector. They wed on May 29, 1849, and had five children, though only two survived childhood.

 

Louis Pasteur

 

First Major Contribution in Chemistry
In 1849, Louis Pasteur was attempting to resolve a problem concerning the nature of tartaric acid—a chemical found in the sediments of fermenting wine. Scientists were using the rotation of polarized light as a means for studying crystals. When polarized light is passed through a solution of dissolved tartaric acid, the angle of the plane of light is rotated. Pasteur observed that another compound called paratartaric acid, also found in wine sediments, had the same composition as tartaric acid. Most scientists assumed the two compounds were identical. However, Pasteur observed that paratartaric acid did not rotate plane-polarized light. He deduced that although the two compounds had the same chemical composition, they must somehow have different structures.

 

Looking at the paratartaric acid under a microscope, Pasteur observed there were two different types of tiny crystals. Though they looked almost identical, the two were actually mirror images of each other. He separated the two types of crystals into two piles and made solutions of each. When polarized light was passed through each, he discovered that both solutions rotated, but in opposite directions. When the two crystals were together in the solution the effect of polarized light was canceled. This experiment established that just studying the composition is not enough to understand how a chemical behaves. The structure and shape is also important and led to the field of stereochemistry.

 

Stereochemistry

 

Commercial Success
In 1854, Pasteur was appointed professor of chemistry and dean of the science faculty at the University of Lille. There, he worked on finding solutions to the problems with the manufacture of alcoholic drinks. Working with the germ theory, which Pasteur did not invent but further developed through experiments and eventually convinced most of Europe of its truth, he demonstrated that organisms such as bacteria were responsible for souring wine, beer and even milk. He then invented a process where bacteria could be removed by boiling and then cooling liquid. He completed the first test on April 20, 1862. Today the process is known as pasteurization.

 

Milk Pasteurization

 

Shifting focus, in 1865, Pasteur helped save the silk industry. He proved that microbes were attacking healthy silkworm eggs, causing an unknown disease, and that the disease would be eliminated if the microbes were eliminated. He eventually developed a method to prevent their contamination and it was soon used by silk producers throughout the world.

 

Pasteur's first vaccine discovery was in 1879, with a disease called chicken cholera. After accidentally exposing chickens to the attenuated form of a culture, he demonstrated that they became resistant to the actual virus. Pasteur went on to extend his germ theory to develop causes and vaccinations for diseases such as anthrax, cholera, TB and smallpox.

 

In 1873, Pasteur was elected as an associate member of the Académie de Médecine. In 1882, the year of his acceptance into the Académie Française, he decided to focus his efforts on the problem of rabies. On July 6, 1885, Pasteur vaccinated Joseph Meister, a 9-year-old boy who had been bitten by a rabid dog. The success of Pasteur's vaccine brought him immediate fame. This began an international fundraising campaign to build the Pasteur Institute in Paris, which was inaugurated on November 14, 1888.

 

Joseph Meister

 

Personal Life
Pasteur had been partially paralyzed since 1868, due to a severe brain stroke, but he was able to continue his research. He celebrated his 70th birthday at the Sorbonne, which was attended by several prominent scientists, including British surgeon Joseph Lister. At that time, his paralysis worsened, and he died on September 28, 1895. Pasteur's remains were transferred to a Neo-Byzantine crypt at the Pasteur Institute in 1896.

 

Source: Biography

 

 

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - ABBOTT AND COSTELLO

Bud Abbott and Lou Costello

 

Did you know... that Abbott and Costello were an American comedy duo composed of comedians Bud Abbott and Lou Costello, whose work on radio and in film and television made them the most popular comedy team of the 1940s and early 1950s and the highest-paid entertainers in the world during World War II? (Wikipedia)

 

One of the most popular comedy teams in movie history, Bud Abbott (1895-1974) and Lou Costello (1906-1959) began in burlesque and ended on television. Along the way, they sold millions of tickets (and war bonds), almost single-handedly saved Universal Pictures from bankruptcy, and made a legendary catch-phrase out of three little words: "Who's on first?" Straight man Abbott was the tall, slim, sometimes acerbic con artist; Costello was the short, pudgy, childlike patsy. Their unpretentious brand of knockabout comedy was the perfect tonic for a war-weary home front in the early 1940s. Though carefully crafted and perfected on the stage, their precision-timed patter routines allowed room for inspired bits of improvisation. Thanks to Abbott and Costello's films and TV shows, a wealth of classic burlesque sketches and slapstick tomfoolery has been preserved, delighting audiences of all ages and influencing new generations of comedians.

 

 

 

As it happens, both men hailed from New Jersey. William "Bud" Abbott was born October 2, 1895, in Asbury Park, but he grew up in Coney Island. Bored by school, and perhaps inspired by the hurly burly atmosphere of his home town, fourteen-year-old Abbott left home to seek a life in show business. The young man's adventures included working carnivals and being shanghaied onto a Norwegian freighter. Eventually landing a job in the box office of a Washington, D.C. theater, Abbott met and married dancer Betty Smith in 1918. He persisted for years in the lower rungs of show business, acting as straight man to many comics whose skills were not up to Abbott's high level. Louis Francis Cristillo was born in Paterson, New Jersey, on March 6, 1906. As a child, he idolized Charlie Chaplin, and grew into a skillful basketball shooter. In 1927, he tried his luck in Hollywood, working his way at MGM from carpenter to stunt man, a job at which he excelled, until an injury forced him to quit the profession and leave California. Heading back east, he got as far as Missouri, where he talked his way into burlesque as a comedian. While the rest of the country suffered through the Depression, Lou Costello flourished in burlesque. In New York in 1934, he also married a dancer, Ann Battler.

 

When Abbott finally met Costello in the thirties, it was quickly apparent in their vaudeville act that each man had found in the other that ineffable quality every showbiz team needs: chemistry. Budding agent Eddie Sherman caught their act at Minsky's, then booked them into the Steel Pier at Atlantic City. (Sherman would remain their agent as long as they were a team.) The next big move for Abbott and Costello was an appearance on Kate Smith's radio program, for which they decided to perform a tried-and-true patter routine about Costello's frustration trying to understand Abbott's explanation of the nicknames used by the players on a baseball team.

 

Abbott: You know, they give ball-players funny names nowadays. On this team, Who's on first, What's on second, I Don't Know is on third.
Costello: That's what I want to find out. Who's on first?
Abbott: Yes.
Costello: I mean the fellow's name on first base.
Abbott: Who.

 

The boys and their baseball routine were such a sensation that they were hired to be on the show every week—and repeat "Who's on First?" once a month. When Bud and Lou realized that they would eventually run out of material, they hired writer John Grant to come up with fresh routines. Grant's feel for the special Abbott and Costello formula was so on target that, like Eddie Sherman, he also remained in their employ throughout their career. And what a career it was starting to become. After stealing the show from comedy legend Bobby Clark in The Streets of Paris on Broadway, Abbott and Costello graduated to their own radio program. There, they continued to contribute to the language they had already enriched with "Who's on first?" by adding the catch phrases, "Hey-y-y-y-y, Ab-bott!" and "Oh—I'm a ba-a-a-d boy!" (For radio, Costello had adopted a childlike falsetto to distinguish his voice from Abbott's.)

 

Abbott, John Grant, Costello

 

Inevitably, Hollywood called, Abbott and Costello answered, and the result was 1940's One Night in the Tropics—"An indiscretion better overlooked," as Costello later called it. The comedy team was mere window dressing in this Jerome Kern operetta, but their next film put the boys center stage. 1941's Buck Privates had a bit of a boy-meets-girl plot, and a few songs from the Andrews Sisters, but this time the emphasis was clearly on Bud and Lou—and it was the surprise hit of the year. The boys naturally sparkled in their patented verbal routines, such as the "Clubhouse" dice game, while an army drill-training routine demonstrated Lou's gifts for slapstick and improvisation. Lou was overjoyed when his idol, Chaplin, praised him as the best clown since the silents. As for Universal, all they cared about was the box-office, and they were overjoyed, too. The studio rushed their new sensational comedy team into film after film (sometimes as many as four a year), and the public flocked to all of them: In the Navy, Hold That Ghost, Ride'Em, Cowboy, etc., etc….

 

 

Compared to Laurel and Hardy, there was something rough and tumble about Abbott and Costello. It was like the difference between a symphony orchestra and a brass band. But clearly, Bud and Lou were playing the music the public wanted to hear. Once the war broke out, the government took advantage of the team's popularity to mount a successful war bond drive which toured the country and took in millions for defense.

 

As fast as Bud and Lou could earn their own money, they couldn't wait to spend it on lavish homes and dressing-room poker games. Amid the gags, high spirits, and big spending, there were also difficult times for the duo. They had a genuine affection for each other, despite the occasional arguments, which were quick to flare up, quick to be forgotten. But Lou inflicted a wound which Bud had a hard time healing when the comic insisted, at the height of their success, that their 50-50 split of the paycheck be switched to 60 percent for Costello and 40 percent for Abbott. Bud already had private difficulties of which the public was unaware; he was epileptic, and he had a drinking problem. As for Lou, he had a near-fatal bout of rheumatic fever which kept him out of action for many months. His greatest heartache, however, came on the day in 1943 when his infant son, Lou "Butch," Jr., drowned in the family swimming pool. When the tragedy struck, Lou insisted on going on with the team's radio show that night. He performed the entire show, then went offstage and collapsed. Costello subsequently started a charity in his son's name, but a certain sadness never left him.

 

On screen, Abbott and Costello were still riding high. No other actor, with the possible exception of Deanna Durbin, did as much to keep Universal Pictures solvent as Abbott and Costello. Eventually, however, the team suffered from overexposure, and when the war was over and the country's mood was shifting, the Abbott and Costello box office began to slip. Experimental films such as The Time of Their Lives, which presented Bud and Lou more as comic actors than as a comedy team per se, failed to halt the decline. But in the late forties, they burst back into the top money-making ranks with Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein, a film pairing the boys with such Universal horror stalwarts as Bela Lugosi's Dracula and Lon Chaney, Jr.'s Wolf Man. The idea proved inspired, the execution delightful; to this day, Meet Frankenstein is regarded as perhaps the best horror-spoof ever, with all due respect to Ghostbusters and Young Frankenstein. Abbott and Costello went on to Meet the Mummy and Meet the Invisible Man, and, when the team started running out of gas again, they pitched their tent in front of the television cameras on The Colgate Comedy Hour.

 

These successful appearances led to two seasons of The Abbott and Costello Show, a pull-out-the-stops sitcom which positively bordered on the surrealistic in its madcap careening from one old burlesque or vaudeville routine to another. On the show, Bud and Lou had a different job every week, and they were so unsuccessful at all of them that they were constantly trying to avoid their landlord, played by veteran trouper Sid Fields (who contributed to writing the show, in addition to playing assorted other characters). Thanks to the program, a new generation of children was exposed to such old chestnuts as the "Slowly I Turned… " sketch and the "hide the lemon" routine. One of those baby-boomers was Jerry Seinfeld, who grew up to credit The Abbott and Costello Show as the inspiration for his own NBC series, one of the phenomena of 1990s show business.

 

 

By the mid 1950s, however, the team finally broke up. It would be nice to be able to report that their last years were happy ones, but such was not the case. Both men were hounded by the IRS for back taxes, which devastated their finances. Lou starred in a lackluster solo comedy film, made some variety show guest appearances, and did a sensitive acting turn on an episode of TV's Wagon Train series, but in 1959 he suddenly died of a heart attack. Abbott lived for fifteen more years, trying out a new comedy act with Candy Candido, contributing his voice to an Abbott and Costello TV animation series, doing his own "straight acting" bit on an episode of G.E. Theater. Before he died of cancer in 1974, Abbott had the satisfaction of receiving many letters from fans thanking him for the joy he and his partner had brought to their lives.

 

 

 

In the 1940s, long before the animated TV show based on Bud and Lou, the Warner Bros. Looney Toons people had caricatured the boys as two cats out to devour Tweetie Bird. Already they had become familiar signposts in the popular culture. The number of comedians and other performers who have over the years paid homage to Abbott and Costello's most famous routine is impossible to calculate. In the fifties, a recording of Abbott and Costello performing "Who's on First" was placed in the Baseball Hall of Fame. This was a singular achievement, over and above the immortality guaranteed by the films in which they starred. How many other performers can claim to have made history in three fields—not only show business, but also sports and linguistics?

 

Source: Encyclopedia.com

 

Edited June 5, 2020 by DarkRavie

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - ROCK N' ROLL

Bill Haley and his Comets performing in the 1954 Universal International film Round Up of Rhythm

 

Did you know... that rock and roll is a form of rock music developed in the 1950s and 1960s? Rock music combines many kinds of music from the United States, such as country music, folk music, gospel music, work, blues and jazz.

 

Rock and roll developed in the early 1950s from a kind of music called rhythm and blues performed by black singers and musicians. At first, this music was popular only with African-Americans. In the later 1950s and in the 1960s, rock and roll became popular across the United States and in Europe.

 

History of rock and roll
1950s: Rockabilly

 

During the early 1950s, the popularity of rhythm and blues music spread. It became very popular among young white people. They listened to this music on radio stations that broadcast across the country late at night. Some teenagers began buying rhythm and blues records as a form of rebellion.

 

Alan Freed had a radio show in Cleveland, Ohio in the early 1950s. He is said to be the first person to use the expression "rock and roll" to describe rhythm and blues music. Alan Freed was one of the first to play rock and roll music on his radio show, and he organized the first rock and roll concert in Cleveland in 1952.

 

Songs by black performers like Fats Domino and Little Richard soon became popular with teenagers. These singers recorded their records in the southern city of New Orleans, Louisiana.

 

Little Richard

 

Some early rock and roll music was created in the southern United States city of Memphis, Tennessee. In Memphis, a white record producer called Sam Phillips produced records by local black musicians. One day, an eighteen-year-old truck driver came to his studio to record a song for his mother. The young man was Elvis Presley. Phillips produced Presley's first real record in 1954, a song called "That's All Right."

 

Elvis Presley

 

Bill Haley and his Comets recorded "Rock Around the Clock" in 1954. It was not popular at first. Then it was used in a movie about rebellious teenagers, called "The Blackboard Jungle". The movie caused a lot of debate on the origin of rock and roll. It also made the song a huge hit. "Rock Around the Clock" became a song of teenage rebellion. The song was recorded in April, Elvis' "That's All Right" was recorded in July. However, Cecil Grant's 'We're Gonna Rock' recorded in mid 1950 is a song that many people have forgotten that was an early influence on rock n roll. Its lyrics and music were like those that would be in later songs. The drums and bass guitar would be similar to rock and roll songs that would be made later.

 

Many other rock and roll singers became popular in the 1950s. They included Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley. Each performer created his own kind of rock and roll. Chuck Berry's music was a mixture of country and rhythm and blues. In 1955, his song "Maybellene" was one of the most popular songs in the country.

 

 

 

Before Bill Haley, Hank Williams Sr recorded "Move It On Over" in 1947, however similar version of the song was recorded by blues artist Jim Jackson called "Kansas City Blues". The melody is similar to both "Move It On" and "Rock Around Clock", but latter has different tonal subtleties and chords.

 

1960s: From Motown to Folk Rock
Motown: African-American popular music
 

In the 1960s, black music and musicians became recognized as an important part of the music industry in America. This was because a company in Detroit, Michigan, called Motown Records that produced some of the most popular songs in American music. Berry Gordy started Motown Records. He presented "black" music in a way that both black people and white people would like. One of Motown's most successful groups was The Supremes, led by Diana Ross. One of their hits was "Come See About Me".

 

 

 

Surf music
A different kind of rock and roll music called surf music was being made in Southern California. Five young men from Los Angeles formed a group called The Beach Boys. Brian Wilson wrote, performed, and produced the group's records. The Beach Boys' songs had complex music and simple words. The words were about the local teenage culture. The group sang about riding surfboards on the ocean waves. One of their most popular songs was "Surfin' USA,” which used the same musical track as Chuck Berry's "Sweet Little Sixteen."

 

Folk rock
In the 1960s, rock and roll music began to change. The words became as important as the music. Bob Dylan began writing folk rock songs that many young people considered to be poetry. Dylan was influenced by folk singers and songwriters like Woody Guthrie. Dylan's early songs were about serious social issues. He wrote about war and racial injustice. Some of his songs were used as protest songs for the anti-war and civil rights movements in America. Later, Dylan wrote more personal songs. One of his most popular songs was “Mister Tambourine Man," which many people thought was a song about drug use.

 

 

 

In 1964, a new rock and roll group from England called The Beatles visited the United States. The Beatles were very popular. They completely shaped the sixties pop era along with the The Rolling Stones. They were icons, and still to this day could be considered icons.

 

Want to read about the 70s and 80s Rock n' Roll music?  Click below. 

 

Source: Kids Encyclopedia Facts

 

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - COMETS, METEORS, ASTEROIDS AND METEORITES

Perseid Meteor Shower

 

Did you know.. that A comet is an icy object which orbits the sun? It produces steam when it nears the sun and develops a tail of dust and gas. A meteor is a particle of rock that burns up in Earth's upper atmosphere, leaving a streak of light. An asteroid is a small rocky object in the solar system. Asteroids range in size from 930 km (578 miles) across down to dust particles. A meteorite is a piece of rock that has survived passage through Earth’s atmosphere, thought to be a fragment of an asteroid, not of a comet.

 

Halley's comet as it appeared from Earth in 1910

 

Halley’s Comet
Comets are chunks of ice and rock left over from the birth of the solar system. Astronomers believe that these icy rocks are located in a zone called the Oort cloud, named after the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort (1900 to 1992), that lies beyond the furthest planet in the solar system.

 

The nucleus of a comet is a chunk of rock and ice lying at its core. As the comet nears the sun, the heat melts the ice. Gas jets spring from the sun-facing side. Fragments of rock break off to form the dust tail.

 

Every 76 years Halley’s Comet returns to the center of the solar system. In 1705, English astronomer Edmond Halley (1656 to 1742) correctly predicted its return in the year 1758. On the last return in 1986, the space probe Geodon penetrated to within 600 km (370 miles) of the comet’s nucleus.

 

Encke's Comet is the comet most frequently seen from Earth

 

Record-Breaking Comets

• The longest known surviving comet lasted for 24 million years. The comet, known as Delavan’s comet, was last seen in 1914.
• The most frequently seen comet is Encke’s comet, which returns every 3.3 years.
• The brightest comet known to science was seen in daylight in 1910. It was as bright as the planet Venus.

 

Table of the Most Frequently Seen Comets
Name of Comet                                                             Frequency of Sighting (in years)
Encke                                                                                                  3.3
Grigg-Skjellerup                                                                                 4.9
Honda-Mirkos-Pajdusakora                                                               5.2
Tempel-2                                                                                            5.3
Neujmin-2                                                                                          5.4
Tuttle-Jacobini-Kresak                                                                       5.5
Tempel-Swift                                                                                      5.7
Tempel-1                                                                                            6.0
Pons-Winnecke                                                                                  6.3
De Vico Swift                                                                                      6.3
 

A table showing the frequency in years with which the main comets visible from Earth can be seen

 

A Comet’s Tail
Each comet has a dust tail and a gas tail. These are blown back by the solar wind, which forces the dust and gas away from the sun. As a comet recedes from the sun its tail always points away from the sun. The dust tail follows the curve of the comet’s path. The gas tail is forced back by electrically charged particles in the solar wind.

 

The comet with the longest known tail was the Great Comet of 1843, which trailed for 330 million km (205 million miles). The tail could have wrapped around Earth 7000 times. It will not return to the center of the solar system until 2356.

 

Formation and direction of a comet's tail while orbiting a star

 

Meteors
Meteors, or shooting stars, are streaks of light that appear briefly in the night sky. They occur when particles of rock or dust, left my comets, burn up in Earth’s atmosphere at speeds of up to 70 km/s (43 mi/s).

 

Comets leave trails of dust and debris along their orbits around the sun. When Earth crosses one of these trails, the dust burns up in the atmosphere and we see a meteor shower in the sky.

 

Table Showing the Main Meteor Showers
Annual Meteor Shower Name                             Dates Visible                            Meteors seen per hour
Quadrantids                                                     3rd to 4th of January                                      50
Lyrids                                                                   22nd of April                                               10
Delta Aquarids                                                      31st of July                                                25
Perseids                                                            12th of August                                               50
Orionids                                                           21st of October                                              20
Taurids                                                             8th of November                                            10
Leonids                                                              17th November                                            10
Geminids                                                          14th December                                              50
Ursids                                                                  22 December                                              15
A table showing the number and frequency of the main meteor showers

 

A meteor above West Virginia, part of the Perseid meteor shower in 2016

 

Asteroids
Asteroids are pieces of rock smaller than planets that orbit the sun. More than 4000 have been found. They range in size from tiny fragments of rock to bodies hundreds of kilometers across.

 

Ceres

Ceres, discovered in 1801, is the biggest known asteroid with a diameter of 930 km (578 miles). If Ceres were placed on earth it would cover France.

 

Vesta

Vesta is smaller than Ceres, but its highly reflective surface makes it the brightest asteroid.

 

Psyche

Psyche is irregularly shaped, made out of iron, and about 260 km (160 miles) long. It’s the same size as Jamaica.

 

 

 

 

Asteroid Belts

Asteroid Belts and Their Potential Significance for Life

• Most asteroids line the asteroid belts between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The Trojan asteroids, though, follow Jupiter’s orbit in two groups. Others orbit the sun alone.
• An estimated 2000 collisions have occurred between asteroids and Earth in the last 600 million years.
• If an asteroid of average size collided with Earth, it could destroy an entire country.
• In January 1991, an asteroid measuring about 10 m (33 feet) across passed between the moon and the earth.
• In the future, asteroids may be mined for metals as resources on Earth grow scarce.
• Asteroid 2309 is called Mr Spock, after the character in the television series and film franchise, Star Trek.
• Ceres, the largest asteroid, contains a quarter of all the rock in the asteroid belts combined.

 

Table Showing the 10 Largest Asteroids
Asteroid Name                                                                           Date of First Observation                                                                     Diameter in km (miles)
Ceres                                                                                                          1801                                                                                                930 (578)
Pallas                                                                                                          1802                                                                                                607 (377)
Vesta                                                                                                          1807                                                                                                519 (322)
Hygeia                                                                                                        1849                                                                                               450 (280)
Euphrosyne                                                                                                1854                                                                                                370 (230)
Interamnia                                                                                                  1910                                                                                                349 (217)
Davida                                                                                                        1903                                                                                                322 (200)
Cybele                                                                                                        1861                                                                                                308 (191)
Europa                                                                                                       1858                                                                                                288 (179)
Patientia                                                                                                     1899                                                                                                 275 (171)
Table showing the 10 largest asteroids and the dates they were first observed

 

 

 

 

Meteorites
A meteorite is a piece of rock from space that escapes destruction in Earth’s atmosphere, and is able to reach the ground. There are 3 kinds of meteorites: Stony, iron, and stony-iron.

 

Stony meteorites
Stony meteorites are the most common type. They consist mainly of the minerals olivine and pyroxene.

 

Iron meteorites
Iron meteorites come from small asteroids that broke up in space. They're rarer than stony meteorites.

 

Stony-iron meteorites
Stony-iron meteorites contain both rock and metal. In many cases a casing of bright metal encloses the mineral base.

 

A slice of the Esquel meteorite showing

the mixture of meteoric iron and silicates

that is typical of this division.

 

The Canyon Diablo meteorite which is on display in the Steinhart Museum,

San Francisco

 

Record-Breaking Meteorites

• The oldest meteorites, called carbonaceous chondrites, are 4.55 billion years old.
• The largest meteorite landed at Fontaine, Namibia. It is called Jojoba, is 2.75 m (9 feet) long, made of iron, and weighs 59 tons. That’s as much as eight adult elephants.
• The only person ever injured by a meteorite was Mrs A. Hodges of Alabama, USA. A four kilogram (9 lbs) meteorite crashed through her roof in November 1954 and injured her arm.
• The only death caused by a meteorite was a dog killed in Egypt in 1911.

 

Meteorites and Superstition
Throughout the ages natural phenomena have often been explained, in the absence of scientific understanding, by superstitious beliefs. The Black Stone of Mecca, housed in a shrine in Saudi Arabia, is the sacred stone of Islam. It is believed to be a meteorite that fell to Earth hundreds of years ago. The famous "Star of Bethlehem" that according to Christian myth led the Magi to the baby Jesus, may have been a comet. And many other natural cosmic phenomena have been mistaken for gods or angels, signs and portents, around the world.

 

"The Star of Bethlehem" by Edward Burne-Jones.

The famous Christmas star, if it existed at all, was probably a comet.

 

Source: Owlcation

Edited June 8, 2020 by DarkRavie

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - FIRST-PERSON NARRATIVE

 

Did you know... that a first-person narrative is a mode of storytelling in which a narrator relays events from their own point of view using the first person i.e. "I" or "we", etc? It may be narrated by a first person protagonist (or other focal character), first person re-teller, first person witness, or first person peripheral (also called a peripheral narrator). A classic example of a first person protagonist narrator is Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre (1847), 

in which the title character is also the narrator telling her own story, "I could not unlove him now, merely because I found that he had ceased to notice me". (Wikipedia)

 

This device allows the audience to see the narrator's mind's eye view of the fictional universe, but it is limited to the narrator's experiences and awareness of the true state of affairs. In some stories, first-person narrators may relay dialogue with other characters or refer to information they heard from the other characters, in order to try to deliver a larger point of view.[5] Other stories may switch the narrator to different characters to introduce a broader perspective. An unreliable narrator is one that has completely lost credibility due to ignorance, poor insight, personal biases, mistakes, dishonesty, etc., which challenges the reader's initial assumptions.

 

Fictional Universe

 

Point of view device
The telling of a story in the grammatical first person, i.e. from the perspective of "I." An example would be Herman Melville's Moby-Dick, which begins with "Call me Ishmael."

 

First-person narration often includes an embedded listener or reader, who serves as the audience for the tale. First-person narrations' may be told by a person directly undergoing the events in the story without being aware of conveying that experience to readers; alternatively, the narrator may be conscious of telling the story to a given audience, perhaps at a given place and time, for a given reason.

 

What Is First Person Point Of View in Writing?
In writing, the first person point of view uses the pronouns “I,” “me,” “we,” and “us,” in order to tell a story from the narrator’s perspective. The storyteller in a first-person narrative is either the protagonist relaying their experiences or a peripheral character telling the protagonist’s story.

 

What Are the Types of First Person Point of View in Writing?
The role the narrator plays in a story determines the type of first-person point of view. The elements of a story—like genre—can help determine who is best suited to serve as narrator and which first-person voice to use.

 

• First-person central. In first-person central, the narrator is also the protagonist at the heart of the plot. Margaret Atwood’s novel Alias Grace employs first-person central point of view. The story is based on a historical event: a double murder that occurred in 1843 in which a manservant was tried and hanged for the murder of his employer. Grace Marks, a maid, was tried and imprisoned as his accessory. The novel is told in through Grace’s point of view as she speaks to the doctor hired to exonerate her.
   
• First-person peripheral. In first-person peripheral, the narrator is a witness to the story but she or he is not the main character. In The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald created the character of Nick, a friend of the protagonist, Jay Gatsby. Nick tells the story of Gatsby trying to win the love of Nick’s cousin, Daisy. Telling the story this way keeps the focus on the protagonist but also creates some distance, so the reader is not privy to their thoughts or feelings. This deliberately keeps Gatsby as a mysterious character and enables Nick to tell the story with a slant, drawing on his experience with Gatsby and his opinion of him to color the narration.

Margaret Atwood

 

3 Reasons to Write in First Person Point of View
When you’re writing a story, you have several narrative voices to choose from. Giving the protagonist or someone close to them the narrative reins has its advantages. A first-person narrator gives the reader a front row seat to the story. It also:

 

• Gives a story credibility. First-person point of view builds a rapport with readers by sharing a personal story directly with them. Bringing the reader in close like this makes a story—and storyteller—credible. From the opening line of Herman Melville’s epic sea tale, Moby Dick, the reader is on a first-name basis with the narrator: “Call me Ishmael.” This familiarity creates a relationship with the narrator, leading the readers to believe that what they are about to hear is a true story. When a writer breaks that narrative trust by leading readers astray—either through a narrator who deliberately lies or a characteristic of the narrator that compromises their credibility—the narrator becomes unreliable.
   
• Expresses an opinion. A narrator tells a story through a lens filtered by their opinions. In the first person point of view, the use of the pronoun “I” establishes a sense of familiarity between reader and narrator, allowing the writer to subtly influence the reader by telling a story with a bias. Scout is the six-year-old narrator in To Kill a Mockingbird and the story is told with the innocence and naiveté of a child’s world view. The author, Harper Lee, had several characters to choose from, but telling this story about race in the American South through this young character’s eyes forces the reader to examine and question the inequalities of race in the same way that Scout does.
   
• Builds intrigue. First person perspective limits a reader’s access to information. They only know and experience what the narrator does. This is an effective tool for creating suspense and building intrigue in stories, particularly in thrillers or mysteries. For example, John Watson is the narrator In almost all of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes mysteries. Keeping Holmes, the protagonist, at arm’s length makes him more interesting, but it also allows the reader to be just as surprised as Watson when Holmes finally cracks a case. Readers tend to identify with characters who are learning like they are.

Sherlock Holmes statue in

Edinburgh, erected opposite the

birthplace of Doyle, which was

demolished c. 1970

 

5 Tips For Writing in First Person
Once you’ve decided to write your story in the first person, use these tips to guide your narrative voice.

• Write an opening like Melville. Let the reader know you’re using a first-person perspective right away as Melville did in the opening line of Moby Dick with “Call me Ishmael.” Introduce the character and narrative voice within the first two paragraphs to create a bond with your readers from the start.
   
• Be descriptive. In the first person, avoid phrases that keep the reader in the narrator’s brain—for example, “I thought,” or “I felt.” While one of the advantages of first person is to know what the narrator is thinking, don’t get stuck in their head. We also want to see through their eyes so use visual language to show the reader around their world.
   
• Stay in character. When using the pronoun “I,” it’s easy to slip out of your character’s voice and into your own as the author. When you’re writing, stay true to your narrator’s perspective.
   
• Mix it up. Starting every line with “I” can become repetitive; vary your sentences by illustrating thoughts or feelings. Instead of writing “I felt tired walking through the deep snow”, try “the mountain was buried in snow, making every step feel like a mile.”
   
• Create a strong narrator. Make your first-person narrator an interesting character to make the story really work. Give them a solid backstory that influences their perspective.

Learn more about narrative point of view with Margaret Atwood.

 

Source: Masterclass

 

[DarkRavie]

Fact of the Day - THE CANADIAN ROCKIES

Canadian Rocky Mountains to Pacific Coast Fly Drive

 

Did you know.. that the Canadian Rockies mountain range spans the provinces of British Columbia and Alberta? With jagged, ice-capped peaks, including towering Mt. Robson, it's a region of alpine lakes, diverse wildlife and outdoor recreation sites. Yoho National Park is home to the massive Takakkaw Falls. Other national parks are Jasper, with the famously accessible Athabasca Glacier, and Banff, site of glacier-fed Lake Louise.

 

A rainbow over Takakkaw Falls.

 

The Canadian Rockies (French: Rocheuses canadiennes) comprise the Canadian segment of the North American Rocky Mountains. They are the eastern part of the Canadian Cordillera, which is a system of multiple ranges of mountains which runs from the Canadian Prairies to the Pacific Coast. The Canadian Rockies mountain system comprises the southeastern part of this system, lying between the Interior Plains of Alberta and Northeastern British Columbia on the east to the Rocky Mountain Trench of BC on the west. The southern end borders Idaho and Montana of the USA. In geographic terms the boundary is at the Canada/US border, but in geological terms it might be considered to be at Marias Pass in northern Montana. The northern end is at the Liard River in northern British Columbia.

 

The Canadian Rockies have numerous high peaks and ranges, such as Mount Robson (3,954 m (12,972 ft)) and Mount Columbia (3,747 m (12,293 ft)). The Canadian Rockies are composed of shale and limestone. Much of the range is protected by national and provincial parks, several of which collectively comprise a World Heritage Site.

 

Geography

Shaded Relief Map of the Canadian Rockies

The Canadian Rockies are the easternmost part of the Canadian Cordillera, the collective name for the mountains of Western Canada. They form part of the American Cordillera, an essentially continuous sequence of mountain ranges that runs all the way from Alaska to the very tip of South America. The Cordillera in turn are the eastern part of the Pacific Ring of Fire that runs all the way around the Pacific Ocean.

 

East Kootenays

 

The Canadian Rockies are bounded on the east by the Canadian Prairies, on the west by the Rocky Mountain Trench, and on the north by the Liard River. Contrary to popular misconception, the Rockies do not extend north into Yukon or Alaska, or west into central British Columbia. North of the Liard River, the Mackenzie Mountains, which are a distinct mountain range, form a portion of the border between the Yukon and the Northwest Territories. The mountain ranges to the west of the Rocky Mountain Trench in southern British Columbia are called the Columbia Mountains, and are not considered to be part of the Rockies by Canadian geologists.

 

Highest peaks

Mount Robson

Mount Robson (3,954 m (12,972 ft)) is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies, but not the highest in British Columbia, since there are some higher mountains in the Coast Mountains and Saint Elias Mountains. However, Mount Robson is particularly impressive because it stands out on the continental divide towering over Yellowhead Pass, one of the lowest passes in the Canadian Rockies, and is close to the Yellowhead Highway. Its base is only 985 m above sea level, meaning it has a total vertical relief of 2,969 m or nearly 10,000 feet. In addition, it rises the 3 km to its summit in a distance of only 4 km from its base at Kinney Lake. Climbing Mount Robson is a challenge suitable for experienced and well-prepared mountaineers, and usually requires a week on the mountain.

 

Mount Columbia (3,747 m (12,293 ft)) is the second-highest peak in the Canadian Rockies, and is the highest mountain in Alberta. There is a non-technical route to the top involving only kicking steps in the snow, but the approach is across the Columbia Icefield and requires glacier travel and crevasse rescue knowledge. It is normally done in two days, with a night at high camp, but some strong skiers have done it from the highway in a day. On the other hand, many others have been stuck in their tents for days waiting for the weather to clear. From the same high camp as for Mount Columbia, it is possible to ascend a number of other high peaks in the area, including North Twin, South Twin, Kitchener, Stutfield and Snow Dome.

 

Snow Dome (3,456 m (11,339 ft)) is not an impressive peak by Rockies standards, but it has the distinction of being the hydrological apex of North America. Water flows off Snow Dome into three different watersheds, into the Pacific Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and Atlantic Ocean via Hudson Bay. It is the easiest and most popular ascent on the Columbia Icefield, a gentle ski to the top from Columbia high camp, but glacier travel is required

 

Of the highest peaks, only Mount Temple (3,543 m (11,624 ft)) has an established scrambling route. All other mountains (including other routes up Mount Temple), require more mountaineering skills and experience. Despite the fact that it is only a moderate scramble, even Mount Temple should not be attempted by novices. According to the Alpine Club of Canada, more people have died on Mount Temple than any other Canadian mountain, including seven youths in an unsupervised American school group in 1955. The upper slopes are usually covered with snow and there is a glacier on top. Scramblers on Mount Temple should carry an ice axe and enough clothing to survive a freezing night on the mountain if a storm hits and prevents them from descending.

 

Mount Temple

 

Contrary to popular misconception, the Canadian Rockies are not the highest mountain ranges in Canada. Both the Saint Elias Mountains (highest point in Canada Mount Logan at 5,959 m (19,551 ft)) and the Coast Mountains (highest point Mount Waddington at 4,016 m (13,176 ft)) have higher summits.

Mountain ranges

Himalaya from the International Space Station

The Canadian Rockies are subdivided into numerous mountain ranges, structured in two main groupings, the Continental Ranges, which has three main subdivisions, the Front Range, Park Ranges and Kootenay Ranges, and the Northern Rockies which comprise two main groupings, the Hart Ranges and the Muskwa Ranges. The division-point of the two main groupings is at Monkman Pass northwest of Mount Robson and to the southwest of Mount Ovington.

 

Rivers

Peace River

The Canadian Rockies are noted for being the source of several major river systems, and also for the many rivers within the range itself. The Rockies form the divide between the Pacific drainage on the west and that of Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean on the east. Of the range's rivers, only the Peace River penetrates the range. Notable rivers originating in the Canadian Rockies include the Fraser, Columbia, North Saskatchewan, Bow and Athabasca Rivers.

 

Geology

Sodalite-aegirine-albite pegmatite specimen,

Ice River Complex, an intrusion partly in

Yoho National Park. Field of view ~7.1 cm across.

 

The Canadian Rockies are quite different in appearance and geology from the American Rockies to the south of them. The Canadian Rockies are composed of layered sedimentary rock such as limestone and shale, whereas the American Rockies are made mostly of metamorphic and igneous rock such as gneiss and granite.

 

The Canadian Rockies are overall more jagged than the American Rockies, because the Canadian Rockies have been more heavily glaciated, resulting in sharply pointed mountains separated by wide, U-shaped valleys gauged by glaciers, whereas the American Rockies are overall more rounded, with river-carved V-shaped valleys between them. The Canadian Rockies are cooler and wetter, giving them moister soil, bigger rivers, and more glaciers. The tree line is much lower in the Canadian Rockies than in the American Rockies.

 

Parks

Peyto Lake, Banff National Park

 

Five national parks are located within the Canadian Rockies, four of which are adjacent and make up the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks. These four parks are Banff, Jasper, Kootenay and Yoho. The fifth national park, Waterton is not adjacent to the others. Waterton lies farther south, straddling the Canada–US border as the Canadian half of the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. All five of these parks, combined with three British Columbia provincial parks, were declared a single UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 for the unique mountain landscapes found there.

 

Fotress Lake, Hamber Provincial Park

 

Numerous provincial parks are located in the Canadian Rockies, including Hamber, Mount Assiniboine and Mount Robson parks.

 

Throughout the Rockies, and especially in the national parks, the Alpine Club of Canada maintains a series of alpine huts for use by mountaineers and adventurers.

 

Source: Kids Encyclopedia